Conservation Biology

CONSERVATION OF VAN ZYL’S GOLDEN MOLE

2007-03-28T11:36:00.000+02:00

Van Zyl’s golden moles (Cryptochloris zyli) are ancient mammals which live under the ground. They have shiny dense fur coat which protect them against cold. Their ears and eyes are not visible, in fact they are blind. Their eyes are covered with hairy skins and their ears are small and are hidden in the animal’s fur [1].

A picture of Van Zyl’s golden mole [5]

The Van Zyl’s golden mole lives in the coastal dure belt. It weighs about 20-30 grams and it is also 80-90 millimetres long. The Van Zyl’s golden mole eats various invertebrates such as legless lizards, which can grow to a length of about 200 millimetres. The offsprings of Van Zyl’s golden mole are born in a grass-lined cavity in the ground. The adult golden moles usually dig tunnels under the ground for shelter [1].

The golden moles are known to be native to Compagnies Drift, which is 16 kilometres inland from Lambert’s bay, north-western Cape Province, South Africa. The Van Zyl’s golden moles are threatened by the continued loss of diversity. What is causing the loss of biodiversity or habitat of the Van Zyl’s golden mole? One of the causes is the mining of coastal dunes for the alluvial diamond could lead to the loss of Van Zyl’s golden mole habitat. The destruction of habitat is associated with tourism development along the west coast. There are about 21 species of Van Zyl’s golden mole which are known. In South Africa there are 18 species which are already known. A. carriae is a Van Zyl’s golden mole which is found at fynbos and it is called the fynbos golden mole. The cape golden mole (C. asiatica) is found at Stellenbosch. Both the fynbos and cape mole live under the soil but they prefer different soil types. At Wakkerstroom the golden mole (Amblysomus septentrionalis) is found only in grass land [2].

When the Van Zyl’s golden mole is awake it is always busy digging or on the move so that it can maintain its body temperature normal. If the Van Zyl’s golden mole stay for too long without doing anything, its temperature will drop dramatically. What happens to the Van Zyl’s golden mole when they are sleeping or they don’t sleep at all since their temperature drops drastically? Luckily the Van Zyl’s golden mole have a muscles twitch when they are sleeping which protect them from dying of cold. The muscle twitch produces energy while they are sleeping to help maintain their body temperature [1].

According the IUCN the Van Zyl’s golden mole is an endangered. When they did there study in 1994 they found that the status of Van Zyl’s golden mole was indeterminate, which means they were lot of them. When the same study was repeated in 1996-2004 they found that that the Van Zyl’s golden mole was critically endangered, which means they have declined dramatically in their number. In 2006 they found that they were still endangered. The Van Zyl’s golden mole is currently found in South Africa [3].

Why the Van Zyl’s golden mole needs to be conserved? According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species includes 10 species of golden mole species which are endangered and most of them are facing extinction [4]. All the 10 species are found in South Africa. The Van Zyl’s golden mole are declining in number or facing extinction because of the increase in the habitat degradation which is caused by human activities. Human destroy the habitat of Van Zyl’s golden moles mostly by mining, urbanisation, agriculture and the poor management of indigenous forests.

References:

[1]. Massicot, P. Animal Info - Van Zyl's Golden Mole. [Internet] Last modified: 2006 Jun 4. [cited 2007 Mar 25]. Available from: http://www.animalinfo.org/species/crypzyli.htm

[2]. Bronner, G. Golden moles. [Internet]. [cited 2007 Mar 25]. Available from: http://www.calacademy.org/research/bmammals/afrotheria/golden_moles/

[3]. Massicot, P. Animal Info - Notes on the IUCN Red List Categories. [Internet]. Last modified: 2004 Jul 28. [Cited 2007 Mar 25]. Available from: http://www.animalinfo.org/notes.htm#IUCNcat

[4]. Bronner, G. 2006. Cryptochloris zyli. In: IUCN 2006. (Afrotheria Specialist Group). 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Image credits:

[5].Van Zyl’s golden mole http://www.calacademy.org/research/bmammals/afrotheria/golden_moles/photos/Cryptochloris_zyli.jpg

Lethabo Mosomane

CSIR

Pretoria

0001

Tel: 27 12 841 2133

Fax: 27 12 842 3676

mail: lmosomane@csir.co.za

http://lmosomane.blogspot.com

African Wild dog are facing a threat of Extinction in Africa.

2007-03-27T15:54:00.000+02:00

The African wild dog (Lycaona pictus) is facing threat in the African continent. It has been listed in the world conservation union (IUCN) as a red list of endangered species. It is regarded to be the most endangered carnivores in the African continent.[1] The African wild dog is a mammal of the cinadae family and is the only species in canid family that lack dewclaws. The African wild dog is related to the domesticated dog. [2]

The African wild dog is only found in Africa as the name is indicated. It mostly found in the savanna and woodland biomes. It has different coat patterns and this differentiate it to other animals. It has black, yellow, and white colour patterns. The wild dog preys, on medium size animal such as impala and antelope. They hunt in packs and they prefer to hunt in open space where they can chase instead of stealth like cheetahs. [1][2]

African wild dog are facing threat of extinctions due to habitant fragmentation by human. The threats are influenced by increase of human population that lead to the increase of forest clearing. The majority of African population depend on agriculture for their lively woods. They have livestock and small scale agriculture, which are encroaching on wild dog habitant. These encroachments are tending to limit the size of wild dog habitant it forces them to mix up with top carnivores (such as Lions, cheetahs and Hynes). This made it difficult for them to find prey; as a result, they have to move around to find food. [1][3]

These factors force them onto human dominated land. This is because the space for them to roam around is limited due to the encroachment by human. Farmers are encountering wild dog in their farms. They tend to defend the wild dog on preying on their livestock by killing the wild dog. These tend to be a threat that African wild dog face due to habitant and environment that they live in are destroyed. It also influenced by deforestation of the wild forest for agricultural practise. These problems have to be solved with better management strategies that can help to conserve the African wild dog. [1][4]

There is a need of conserving the land and wildlife environment for the future of wild species as a whole including African wild dog. There land that inhibit wild animal need to be conserved. For the conservation of African wild dog, they have to be moved to area that is protected in order to maintain the number of wild dog. [1]

The law enforced to monitor the protection of wild dog need to be broaden in order to conserve that population of wild dog and maintain the genetic variation. This can be done by zoning of lands to reduce the risk of crossbreeding of wild dog and domesticated dog. There must be monitoring programs that tracks the movement of the wild dog’s pack. This can be done by identifying the areas that there is large population of wild dog. This may also help to reduce the risk of human conflict by reducing husbandry practise and compensation for livestock losses due to wild dog predation. [1]

Reference:

1. African Wild Dog Conservation: Internet [cited 2007 Mar 24]. Available http://www.wcs.org/international/Africa/wilddogs?preview=&psid=&ph=class%2525252525253dawc-148772/2

2. African Wild Dog: Wikipedia contributors. African Wild Dog [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 24, 09:54 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 24. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_Wild_Dog&oldid=117489037.

3. African Wild Dog Status Survey and Action Plan. (1997). Research and Monitoring: Information for Wild Dog Conservation: Internet [cited 2007 Mar 24]. Available from: http://www.canids.org/PUBLICAT/AWDACTPL/8research.htm

4. African Wild Dog Conservation: 2006 Internet [cited 2007 Mar 24]. Available from: http://www.afrikeye.net/Conservation/AWDC/wild_dogs.htm

Mr Elelwani Muanalo

CSIR Pretoria

NISL- Ecological Informatics

P.O. Box 395

Pretoria, 0001

Tel: +27 12 841 2133

email: emuanalo@csir.co.za

blog url:http://muanalo.blogspot.com

"The best way to predict the future is to invent it"

WHY WILL THE GREAT APES OF THE WORLD SOON BE EXTINCT

2007-03-23T14:36:00.000+02:00

The great apes (bonobos, gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutants) will be extinct if their killing is not stopped in the year 2035 (1). The loss of the great apes is caused by two major factors: forest destruction and their use as bushmeat. Bushmeat is defined as the meat obtained from wild animals (1). Destruction of forest is defined as clearing of the indigenous forest without reforestation. The demand for the bushmeat is growing.

Gorillas and chimpanzees are killed everyday in the central and Western Congo basin and in the central Africa for bushmeat (1). It is estimated that in Congo basin 5million tonnes of meat of the great apes is consumed per annum amounting to the value between 100million and 10million pounds (2). The great apes were hunted and eaten illegally in the past decade but the trade of the bushmeat is still operating underground. I was not aware that the meat of gorilla in the Congo basin worth five times the price of the beef.

Trading in bushmeat is operated by the people from both rich and poor countries (2). Several companies from rich countries are involved in the hunting of the great apes, because they help local people in the trading of the meat, recruit people to sell and buy the bushmeat, provide transportation, ammunitions and machine guns to the local people (4). The international trade of the meat of the great apes which is illegal is on the increase (4).

Many people from Africa now have migrated to the bigger cities around the world such as New York and London and left their grandmothers and other families in Africa. When there is an occasion back home in Africa, the meat which is often eaten is that of one of the great apes (2). In Africa, poverty is cited as the main reason for trading of the bushmeat. The money generated in the trading of the bushmeat is used to buy the basic daily needs which include: fuel, salt and medicine (2). People who are rich and restaurants know exactly where to buy the bushmeat.

Although there is no exact number of how many great apes left around the world, but very few animals left. It is estimated that in central Africa the number of gorillas is low and in Borneo and Sumatra the number of the orangutans is 15000 (1). The chimpanzees are also threatened with extinction and it is difficult to find the population of bonobos as they are found in the Democratic Republic of Congo which is dominated by the ethnic war but the number is also down at approximately 15000 (1).

Deforestation is also a major threat which can lead to the extinction of the great apes. People are creating the space to live and for development by clearing the forests. As the great apes are dependent on the forest for food especially the fruits and their movement from one tree to another, they now find it difficult because of the scarcity of their food and the habitat which is now shrinking at an alarming rate.
Conservation biologists must advise logging companies from Europe to construct roads that lead to the forest which were previously not penetrated and stop their trucks from transporting the meat of the great apes to the major cities around the world (3).

REFERENCES

1. Gould, A. B. 1999. Gorilla on a plate. [Online]. Available from: http://www.radionetherlands.nl/documentaries/documentaries_more/041018doc

2. Douala, C. R. 2004. Great apes face extinction. [Online]. Available from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/conservation/story/0,13369,1340363,00.html

3. Strieker, G. 1999. Growing demand for bushmeat threatens great apes. [Online]. Available from:http://www.cnn.com/NATURE/9908/12/cameroon.ape.meat/

4. Streiker, G. 1998. Poachers killing gorillas, chimps for bushmeat delicacy. [Online]. Available from: http://www.cnn.com/TECH/science/9812/30/africa.bushmeat/

Peter Muvhali
CSIR PTA
0001
Tell no 012 8142133
Fax 012 8423676
E-mail smuvhali@csir.co.za
URL: http://www.blogsoccer-peter.bogspot.com

CONSERVATION HISTORY OF THE REMARKABLE PARROT IN THE WORLD

2007-03-22T07:55:00.000+02:00

The most remarkable parrot in the world is the owl parrot, its common name is the kakapo (meaning night parrot) and Strigops habroptilus scientifically. The kakapo is remarkable because it is one of the rarest and strangest birds in the entirety of the world [1]. The kakapo is the only nocturnal parrot and only flightless parrot with a lek (clump of male territories that females visit only for mating purposes) breeding system in the world [2]. Kakapo is also the heaviest (weighing up to 4kg) parrots and longest lived parrots; they lived for sixty years [1]. Strigops habroptilus is found only in New Zealand [1].

Kakapa belongs to kingdom Anamalia and phylum Chordata. The kakapo is a member of class Aves, family Psittacidae and order Psittaciformes. The Kakapo has a moss-green feathers barred with black. The kakapo feed on indigenous plants, pollens, seed and fruits [1].

The kakapos were found in the entirety of New Zealand before the arrival of Polynesians (Maori) settlers in Aotearoa 1,000 years ago [2]. Strigops habroptilus were threatened by predators such as humans, rats, stoats and dogs. Strigops habroptilus were hunted for food, feathers and skin by Maori settlers. It was simple for the Maori and their dogs to prey Strigops habroptilus because they are flightless, give off strong aroma and a tendency of freezing when threatened [3]. The Maori brought the rat accidentally to New Zealand and these rats predated kakapo eggs and chicks. Mustelids such as weasels, stoats and ferrets were released around 1880 to decrease the rabbit population _ unfortunately they also preyed on the kakapo [3]. The Polynesians cleared area for grazing, farming and to expose kakapo in their habitat. The vegetation was cleared and resulted to decrease of habitat for kakapo. Kakapo were also extinct in various site of the islands, they remained at the North Island and woody part of South island. [2].

All the above mentioned activities influenced the New Zealand government to protect the kakapos in the reserve. Some kakapos were captured and placed in zoos. [2]. Kakapos were relocated before they went extinct because conservationists were aware that the numbers of kakapos were declining. Most of the kakapo that were captured died within few months. The government of New Zealand appointed Richards Henry as a caretaker of the birds in 1891. The Kakapos were relocated to Resolution Island Reserve by Henry because there were no predators on the island [2]. About 350-400 were relocated in less than six years [3]. Unfortunately, Resolution Island was accidentally colonised by stoats and the kakapos were preyed [2]. The three remaining kakapos were relocated to Nature Reserve of Little Barrier Island in 1903 and they disappeared because of the presence of Felis cattus. However, Strigops habroptilus were found and relocated to Kapiti Nature reserve Island in 1912 [3].

The kakapos were extinct in North Island and they declined in South Island during 1920s [3]. The regular expedition began in 1950s to locate the kakapo and they were recorded in Fiordland. In 1961, six kakapos were captured, five were relocated to aviaries of St Bruce Native Birds nature Reserve and one was released [3]. Four of these birds died within a months and one survived for approximately four years. In 1967, only one bird was captured, and it died in 1968 [2].

The number of individuals Strigops habroptilus decreased tremendously. As a result, the remaining six kakapos were captured by New Zealand Wildlife Services (a government agency charged with caring for New Zealand’s wildlife) in 1961. Kakapo were found in the Tutuko Valley and Sinbad Gully and transferred them to Mount Bruce National Wildlife - unfortunately, these birds did not survive [4]. During regular expedition of 1968 mere kakapo were found [2]. Strigops habroptilus was listed as a foreign endangered species on Endangered Species Act of the United States in 1970 [5]. Since 1974-1976 only 14 males kakapo were exposed by scientists led by Don Merton. The capturing of male indicated that all the female were died [4].

In 1977, about 100-200 kakapo (include males and females) were found in Stewart Island during expeditions [2]. Some kakapos were relocated from Stewarts Island for example four to Maud Island, 30 to Codfish Island and 18 to Little Barrier Island to be free from predators [3] [6]. The kakapos remained on Stewarts Island were preyed by Felis cattus with a predation of 56% [2]. Studies suggested that the feral cat (Felis cattus) consumed the kakapo because they were found with their feathers in 1977 [3]. Felis cattus were blamed for killing and consuming various kakapos including thirteen adults kakapo [6]

The recovery program plan for kakapo was developed in 1989 with an aim of protecting the remaining birds to extinct [2]. The kakapo number declined up to 51 in 1995 [7]. Consequently, the New Zealand’s Department of Conservation substituted Wildlife Service to save the kakapo from extinction [8]. The remaining kakapos were then transferred to Codfish and Maud Island where their predators were absent. In 2000, there were about sixty four kakapos [7]. Strigops habroptilus was listed to be critically endangered in 2000 by International Threatened and Endangered listing of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUNC) [4].

In 2002, there were 84 individual Strigops habroptilus [4]. Since November 2005, Strigops habroptilus have been kept on Codfish, Maud, Anchor and Chalky Islands because their predators are absent. In May 2006, kakapa were thought to extinct everywhere except those in breeding program on island reserve [9].There are only 86 kakapos that are living and they have been given individual names for example females (Alice, Bella) and males (Merty, Luke) [2] [8] [9].

Kakapos were endangered for the whole century and today are critically endangered. The recovery programs for kakapo is protecting them from extinction seem to be successful. However, the recovery is slowly.

References

1. Stevens D.2005. From Single Organisms to Global Environments. [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 05] Available from: http://www.gla.ac.uk:443/avenue/story.cfm?id=53

2. Wikipedia contributors. Kakapo. [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 13, 12:08 UTC [cited 2007 Feb 28].
Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakapo

3. Kakapo Management Group. Kakapo Recovery Plan 1996-2005 [Internet ]. [Cited 2007 Mar 05] Available from: www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/TSRP21.pdf

4. New Zealand Ecology. [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 05] Available from: http://www.terranature.org/kakapo.htm

5. Clark J.R. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 5-Year Review of Foreign Listed Psittacine Species. Federal Register [Internet]. 2000 [cited 2007 Mar 12] 65 (185). Available from: http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-SPECIES/2000/September/Day-22/e24423.htm

6. Powlesland R.G, Roberts A, Lloyd B.G & Merton D.V. Number, fate, and distribution of kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) found on Stewart Island, New Zealand, 1979-92. New Zealand Journal of Zoology. [Internet] 1994 [cited 2007 Mar 13]22: 239-248. Available from: www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjz/1995/69.php

7.Relph D. 2000. The kakapo under pressure. [Internet ]. [Cited 2007 Mar 05] Available from: http://www.newhouse.co.nz/subjects/images/Zearth2.pdf.

8. Lioyd P. 2002/3. Parrots in Danger [Internet]. [Cited 2007 March 05]: Available from: http://www.btinternet.com/~bury_rd/parrot.htm

9. BBC.2006. Kakapo-the world’s most remarkable parrot. [Internet]. [Cited 2007 March 05]: Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A11815148

Masiya Kedibone
CSIR Pretoria
NISL- Ecological Informatics
P.O. Box 395
Pretoria
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kmasiya@csir.co.za
http://kedibone-kedimasiya.blogspot.com

Wetlands Conservation in South Africa

2007-03-20T13:09:00.000+02:00

Wetlands can be defined in different ways: wetlands can be defined as muddy places, infested with diseases and mosquitoes. The Conservationists define wetlands as the most productive ecosystems, supporting enormous quantities of unique plants. Therefore the Water Act of South Africa define wetlands as a land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems, where the water table is usually at the surface or the land is periodically covered with shallow water, and which land in normal circumstances supports or would support vegetation typically adapted to life in saturated soil. (1) . Wetlands are found in a variety of topographical settings for an example gentle slope and depressions where water flows down to the river. The fresh water wetlands are found all over the world in lowland areas such as rivers, lakes and streams. They are always under water and other they occur for a few weeks at a time and then disappear until they are refilled with water.
(2)

Wetlands play an important role in purifying water by trapping pollutants, micro-organisms such as viruses and bacteria which cause diseases like diarrhoea and dysentery. They function like living filters because they remove pollutant nutrients and sediments from surface and ground water. Wetland is also functions as a barrier to erosion. How? The root system of wetland plants stabilize soil at the water’s edge and enhance soil accumulation at the shoreline. Therefore by dampening wave action and slowing current speed wetland reduces erosion. Wetland plays an important role in flood prevention especially in urban area; it acts as a hydrologic sponge by storing flood water for temporarily and later releasing it slowly. (3)

Who benefits most from wetlands? Some of mammal species (River Otter and Sable Antelope), plant species (Yellow lotus and Bulrushes), insect species (Dragonfly and Water Bugs), amphibian species (Dwarf Siren and Gold Spiny Reed Frog), reptile species (Crocodiles and Snakes), bird species (Common Snipe) and fish species (Cape Lopez Lyretail) depend on wetlands for food and shelter (4). Agricultures and industries mostly depend on wetlands. Wild rice is a plant that is found in wetlands and it can be used to produce medicines, cosmetic and decorative items. (5). All above-mentioned species benefit from the wetlands during a drought period because the water sinks into the ground where some is stored as a reserve for drier periods.

Why does South Africa need to conserve its wetlands? South Africa is one of the countries which water is scarcer. Sixty-five percent of South Africa receives an average of less than 500mm of rain a year which makes it a water-scarce country according to the World Wide Fund for nature (WWF). They further mentioned that South Africa will run out of water if urgent steps are not taken seriously in managing of wetlands in a sustainable manner. (7) . SANBI (South African National Biodiversity Institute), DEAT (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism), DWAF (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry) and Agriculture lunched the Working for Wetlands programme. The programme focused mainly on the protection, rehabilitation and sustainable use of wetlands. The programme is also committed to international agreements policy (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands). The activities that are undertaken within the projects are as follows: the building of concrete, gabion structures in order to arrest erosion; plugging of artificial drainage channels; eradicating of invasive alien plants and airing awareness of wetlands among workers, landowners and the public. The other few activities include wetlands inventory and funding of wetlands-related research (8).

(8)
The Working for Wetlands project employed 1, 690 people in 2006 and 2007 and the targeted workers are drawn from disadvantaged background (unemployment and poverty). The programme aims to rehabilitate 83 wetlands by installation of 1,700m of fencing around structures; clearing invasive alien vegetation from 671 ha of wetlands and construction of 34,500m 3 of gabion, concrete and earth structures to trap sediment. The DEAT recommended that people must work with the departments by reporting the abuse of wetlands in their local nature conservation and all people to participate in wetlands conservation programme. Therefore conservation of wetlands in South Africa is more essential because many people remain directly dependent on wetlands for their water and much of their food. The more people are involved (volunteers) in Wetlands Conservation project, the better conservation of wetlands will improve.

References

Andreas Viklund. SANParks and Wetlands Preservation and Conservation In South Africa. [Internet]. Access on line: 16 March 2007. Available on: http://www.vuvuzela.com/wetlandspreservation/
Kandis Elliot. Defender of Worllife. Wetlands: Wonderlands Not Wastelands. [Internet] Online Access: 09 March 2007. Available from: http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/caer/ce/eek/nature/habitat/wetland1.htm
Unknown. Living with Michingan’s Wetlands: A Landowner’s Guide. [Internet] Online Accesses: 11 March 2007. Available from: http://www.vbco.org/planningeduc0011.asp
Dr. Eric F. Pauley. Wetlands Plant Ecology. Biology 578. Assistant Proferssor, Department of Biology, Costal Carolina University. [Internet] Online access: 13 March 2007. Available from: http://www.lethsd.ab.ca/mmh/grade5/wetlands/index.htm
Paruelo. J. Sutton. P. Van der belt. M. and Hannon. B. Economic Benefits of Wetlands. [Internet] Online Access: 09 March 2007. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/EconomicBenefits.pdf
Unknown. Missouri Botanic Garden. Wetlands Topics. [Internet] Online access: 17 March 2007. Available from: http://www.mbgnet.net/fresh/wetlands/index.htm
Unknown. Forest Conservation Portal. [Internet] Online Access: 19 March 2007. Available from: http://forests.org/articles/reader.asp?linkid=31713
South African National Biodiversity Institute. Working for Wetlands Programme. [Internet] Online accesses: 17 March 2007. Available from: http://www.sanbi.org/research/wetlandprog.htm

Ramapulana Nkoana
CSIR
Pretoria0001
Cell:+27 73 347 6551
Tell:+27 12 841 2133
Fax:+27 12 841 4405
Email: pnkoana@csir.co.za
: puli.nkoana@gmail.com
Blog URL: http://pnkoana.blogspot.com/

DEPLETION OF THE OLIFANTS RIVER IN THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK

2007-03-19T13:47:00.000+02:00

Olifants River is the biggest river flowing through the Kruger National Park (KNP) [1]. This river is faced with a huge depletion of water content and extinction of its assets. This is due to irrigation, pollution, abstraction and other uses, as it is not raining much in the low Veld for the past three years, all these reasons have caused the decreased in the runoff of this river and it was stopped flowing twice [2].

There are about two million people who are depending on the Olifants River for their survival. There dams which are built along this river and most of these dams are mainly used for primary water supply and irrigation purposes [1].
The serious water quality deterioration in the Olifants is mainly caused by mining activities and power stations scattered across the basin. Mining activities and industrial activities are the major sources of pollution. Pollution by high metals and high silts loads are the main concern for conservation and have contributed to the disappearance of five fish species in the river [1].

In KNP the Olifants River is divided into different pools. The pools are naturally made where the river is too deep. As the water is deteriorating animals like hippos tend to stay in the pools as they need more water which can cover up the whole bodies. The hippos have been living and defecating in the pools producing an excessive quality of dung. As the dung decomposes it removes oxygen the water and this causes the fish to suffocate [3]. According to Dr Thomas Gyedu –Ababio, who is Kruger’s Rivers manager, at least five hundred dead species have been found on the banks of the pool after the birds have helped themselves with some of the fishes. Fish species found include catfish, yellow fish and tilapia [3].

There is a huge argument at stake between the arms of the government and the South African National parks (SANParks) [3]. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) and the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWARF) are proposing to build a 21-storey dam on the Olifants River. DWARF plans to start building the R4 billion De Hoop dam on a tributary of the Olifants River [3]. The main reason for this dam will be to feed the mining interest and agriculture. De Hoop dam will depend on the Steelpoort River and Steelpoort is the major tributary feeding the Olifants [3]. This idea is having the negative impact on the Olifants which is a major supplier of the water in KNP. Olifants is depending on Steelpoort for water and if De Hoop dam is built then the Olifants will suffer especially during the dry season. The hippos are already struggling with the little water and fishes are already dying out, this will only lead to the death of the Olifants River.

The drying of the Olifants will also have the negative effect on tourism, wildlife and concession areas in Kruger [4]. There are tourists who came to Kruger specifically for fishing, they pay the entrance fee and also the fishing permit which is good for the economic point in KNP but if this river runs dry, and such tourists will no longer visit Kruger. As Olifants is feeding both KNP and Mozambique, the building of the dam can have some political critics.
Ecotourism is very important in South Africa as it makes it a better country to visit. Instead of killing the Olifants River it can be a wise idea for DEAT and DWARF to support in helping the Olifants River fight for its life rather than building dams which is in return killing the river.

References

1. Anonymous. Unknown Date. Rivers and Catchments. [Cited 2007 Mar 15: 11h00]. Available from: http://www.kruger2canyons.com/hydrology.htm

2. Wray, M. Kruger Times. Olifants Dam Causes Ecology Headaches [Online]. Posted 2004 Oct 24 15:05 [Cited 2007 Mar 15]. Available From:
http://www.kruger2canyons.com/2004/10/olifants-dam-causes-ecology-headaches.htm

3. Anonymous. Fish Dying as Rivers Dry Up. [Online]. Posted 2005 August 31, UTC 12:55 [Cited 2007 Mar 19]. Available From:
http://www.kruger2canyons.com/2005_08_01_archive.html

4. Anonymous. Olifants Plan Damned From The Start. [Online] Posted 2006 Feb 18 12:06 [Cited 2007 Mar 19]. Available From:
http://www.kruger2canyons.com/2006/02/olifants-plan-damned-from-start.htm

Dianah Nangammbi
Cilla CSIR
P.O Box 395
Pretoria
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Tel: +27 12 841 2133
Email: dnangammbi@csir.co.za
http://wwwdianah.blogspot.com/

MOUNTAIN GORILLAS AND THREATS THEY FACED

2007-03-19T10:18:00.000+02:00

Virunga volcano region is located in mountain forest which is stretches through Uganda, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Virunga is the conservation area and home of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). The word Virunga is the Swahili name that mean volcano. Mountain gorillas feed on leaves, flowers, bark, bulbs, stems, and fruits of the plants (1). Mountain gorillas are the largest of the great apes that share the common ancestor with human (2). Human and gorillas share 98 percent of genome (genetically identical) (3). Gorillas also use leaves and branches to build their nests. Mountain gorillas were listed as one of the most endangered species in the world and approximate 655 gorillas are thought to be found in Virunga volcano Region (4).

Mountain gorillas were classified as an endangered species due to human encroachment. Forest clearance and degradation due to growth of human population threatened the Gorilla beringei beringei. People cut down the forest for infrastructure development, constructions, cut down the trees for firewood, livestock grazing and agricultural purposes. Mountain gorillas lost their habitat because of the above impacts (5). Mountain gorillas were also hunted and killed and their parts such as hands, heads were sells to the tourists. On going threatened to Gorilla beringei beringei include diseases such as ebola virus and polio. Ebola virus killed gorillas in Odzala National Park (DRC) and the scientists are fear that the virus could infect the remaining species within next five years (6).

Scientists estimated that approximately 5,000 of gorillas were killed in central Africa by bola virus (7). Scientists say that they will use natural barriers to stop the spread of virus and they hope that they will find the cure of this virus. They also think that taking healthy gorillas away from the virus zone will save many lives (6). Poachers trapped and killed mountain gorillas using the snares for their survival (5). The war between government security forces, rebels, and militia threatened the mountain gorillas in Virunga area (4). Rebels and militias in Virunga National Park invaded and killed gorillas for the meat. During the fight, rebels killed about 97 government security forces (rangers) in 1996. Killed rangers were trying to stop non –official armed (rebels and militia) from killing the gorillas and cutting down the forest. Congo conservationists fear that rebels and militias will butcher the remaining mountain gorillas because they are at risk (8).

Although the Gorilla beringei beringei are heavily protected in Virunga Park, the scientists also believe that their future remains uncertain. Scientists also encourage the communities to slow down the commercial bush meat and dedicate their lives to protect endangered species. Monitoring further research about mountain gorillas is necessary because peoples still had taboos against eating gorillas. Therefore, people are also encouraged to buy certified wood from the logging companies that have certificates to support illegal bush meat hunting. Although mountain gorillas population seems to have increased by 17% in 2003 by scientists since 1989 after the launch of mountain gorilla project (9, 10), it does not mean that they are no longer endangered.

I am concluding by saying that mountain gorillas are still in critical endangered as World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red list of endangered species indicated. Mountain gorillas and their habitat need protection. Local people need education about the ecological as well as economical values of unique heritages because “the bush meat crisis is the complex problem involving politics, economics, logging, population, culture, ethics, and imbalanced interactions between the developing and developed world”(9), so an awareness education is really needed to save an endangered mountain gorillas. The best way is to support any conservation effort. African Wildlife Foundation program hope that mountain gorillas can be saved if people adopt them. So people who will adopt the gorillas, they will show that they support the recovery effort of Gorilla beringei beringei. In addition, a bush meat project has been established to support companies that will help the people around Virunga conservation area to protect endangered species and its natural habitat. If you are interest to view the image of Virunga Conservation area, I have linked the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) site (11).

References:

1. Taylor H. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2000. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 8]. Available from: http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/39994/all

2. Anonymous. “Endangered mountain gorillas.” 2005. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 12]. Available from:
http://www.africanconservation.org/dcforum/DCForumID5/247.html

3.Anonymous. Mountain Gorillas. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 19]. Available from:
http://www.awf.org/content/action/detail/3602
4. Rutagarama E. “A Conservation Triumph: The Mountain Gorillas of Rwanda”.2004 [Online]. [Cited 2004 May 12]. Available from:
http://www.africanconservation.org/dcforum/DCForumID5/205.html

5. Anonymous. Mammals: Gorillas.2007 [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 12]. Available from: http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-gorilla.html

6. Owen J. Ebola Flares in Western Gorilla, Chimp stronghold. 2005. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 12]. Available from:
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/04/0404_050404_ebolagorilla.html

7. Wikipedia contributors. Gorilla. The free encyclopedia.2007. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 12]. Available from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla#Gorillas_in_pop_culture

8. Reed J. Rebels kill, eat endangered mountain gorillas. 2007. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 8]. Available from:
http://www.mail-archive.com/helptheanimals@yahoogroups.com/msg01063.html

9. Walker R. Mountain Gorillas escape poachers. 2004. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 12]. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3407831.stm

10. Bowman K, Rose A. The Gorilla Crisis Wildlife Values Education Project Enhancing Attitudes Toward Conservation. 2007 [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 14]. Available from: http://www.great-apes.com/papers/gcwv.htm

11. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Gorillas in the Midst of Extinction.2006 [Online]. [Cited 2006 March 2007]. Available from:
http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/gorillas.html

Lizzy Masingita Maluleke
CSIR PTA
NISL- Ecological Informatics
P O Box 395
Pretoria
0001
E-mail mmaluleke@csir.co.za
Weblog: http://mmaluleke.blogspot.com

WHY CONSERVE THE AMUR LEOPARD?

2007-03-16T16:58:00.000+02:00

The amur leopards are classified in the phylum Chordata from the kingdom Animalia, they are of the class Mammalian from the family Felidae and genus Panthera [1]. The amur leopard, Panthera pardus, is a subspecies of Panthera pardus. orientalis [2]. Male amur leopards weigh between 32 and 48 kg and females weigh between 25 and 43 kg [3]. The P.p. orientalis has long fur and legs that help the leopards to cope with harsh and cold conditions, its fur grows to about 2.5 cm long during summer and 7 cm [Image 1] in winter [2]. The amur leopards are found in the mountains of Russia, Sikhote-Alin and in the northern mountains of North Korea [4]. These beautiful cats are now faced with extinction.

Image 1: Amur leopard during winter with a fur of 7cm.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_Leopard

The world’s rarest cats, Panthera pardus are carnivores, skilful and opportunistic hunters feeding on sika deer, roe deer, hares, badges and small rodents [2; 4]. Richards Black of BBC environment correspondent reported that the conservationist warned that the amur leopards are facing extinction in the wild, due to the action that Russian’s government took. Richards further indicated that the Russian government approved a pipeline of oil to pass through the only habitat of the leopards in the harsh eastern coast. As a result, about 30 amur leopards survived in the wild [5].

The factors that can cause Panthera pardus to extinct are habitat destruction, trophy hunting and fur poaching. The amur leopards are hunted because some people need the coat and some needs their bones because they used them for Traditional Chinese Medicine [1].

Increase in human population in the northeast of China and their use of forest resource has excluded the amur leopards. People in the southeast of Primorye are forced to rely on local forest products because of poor economy. The poor economy encourages poaching [6]. The habitats of amur leopard change from forest to grassland because of the fire caused by human. Leopards are not suitable on the open grasslands [6]. It is important that we conserve the habitat of amur leopards because we will be conserving them. The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is successfully managing the fire by using the satellite images to monitor the fire. The ZSL is reducing the burn every year by up to 2/3 [4].

The Amur Leopards and Tiger Alliance (ALTA) designed conservation strategies for the Amur leopards and that include protection of the leopards from the illegal hunting and habitat destruction, awareness programmes with local communities and scheme for deer farmers. Michiel Hotte of ZSL is working with the local Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) such as Phoenix aiming to design and implement anti-poaching patrols, fire fighting strategies and education programmes and providing funds for local livestock [1,4].

The ZSL in partnership with Moscow Zoo are co-ordinating a conservation-breeding programme of the amur leopards in the zoos. They reported that there were 100 leopards in their zoo and that it is necessary to conserve the leopards in the wild. Educating people, researches and fundraising can help in the conservation of the leopards. The ZSL have to do more because human beings are ignorant, some might stop hunting the leopards while others might not stop especially if they do not have other alternative that they use to find money. People hunting the amur leopards illegally must be prosecuted. The Russian government should re-route the oil pipeline that pass through the habitat of the amur leopards as requested by the expert, ZSL.

References:

[1]. Miller, S. and Jackson, P. 2005. Amur leopards. AMUR, ICUH cat specialist group. [Cited 2007 March 12, 10h00]. Available from: http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Panthera_pardus_orientalis/more_info.html

[2]. Wikipedia contributors. Amur Leopard [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 11, 13:33 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 12]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_Leopard

[3]. Geocities. 1998. Endangered cats [Internet]. [Cited 2007 Mar 12]. Available from: http://www.geocities.com/rainforest/vines/2689

[4]. The Zoological Society of London. Unknown Date. Amur leopard conservation in Russia. [Cited 2007 Mar 13, 10h00]. Available from:
http://www.zsl.org/field-conservation/carnivores-and-people/amur-leopard-conservation-in-russia,468,AR.html

[5]. Black, R. 2005. Rare leopards ‘Rare extinction’. BBC environment correspondent [cited 2007 Mar 09, 11h30]. Available from:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4197737.stm.

[6]. Miquelle, D. 2007. Amur Leopards. Wildlife Conservation Society. [Cited 2007 Mar 13, 14h00]. Available from:
http://www.wcs.org/international/Asia/russia/Amurleopard

Image Credits

Image 1: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_Leopard

Ms Evelyn Maleka

CILLA CSIR

P.O. Box 395

Pretoria, 0001

Tel: (012) 841 2133

Fax: (012 )841 4405

Email: emaleka@csir.co.za

http://malekaevelyn.blogspot.com/

The illegal trade in endangered rhinoceros species

2007-03-16T15:45:00.000+02:00

There is an increasing conservation of endangered flora and fauna species at both national and international level. Endangered species means the species whose population is so small and is in danger of becoming extinct through out the world (1). Many species are facing with extinction due to the threat of illegal trade in wildlife and poaching. Presently the illegal trade of endangered species is a big problem all over the world. South Africa is the first country that tries to fight the illegal trade of endangered species (8).

Two hundred million years ago (Miocene era), mammals such as the rhinoceros were in abundant around the world. Today they are few rhinoceros left (5). The rhinoceros is a big mammal that belongs to the family of Rhinocerotidea and is the second largest terrestrial mammal around the world. The elephant is the biggest mammal on the land. Rhinos are faced with extinction because they are killed by people for their horns.

South Africa is considered as successful in nature conservation more especially in the conservation of white rhinos. In the beginning of 20 century, rhinos were almost extinct. During 1825 and 1900 the numbers of rhinos were declined by 50 individuals in Kwazulu Natal (5).

There is a huge demand for rhino horns in the market. Rhino horns have been in demand by different people like Arabs, Europeans, Africans, Chinese and Indians for different purposes or beliefs. Some Chinese people believe that the powdered horn of rhinos is used as a traditional medicines for treating fever (7).

Some people believe that a powder produced from rhino horns could cure many diseases, including diphtheria, nose bleeds and measles. Others believe that, a sip of water boiled with Rhino horns may help to cure chest pains, and can stop headaches, coughs and snakebites. Many people also believe powdered rhino horn helps to keep the energy of youth to contribute in sexual stamina. However, scientists say that this is a myth but people continue on poaching. Currently there are programs that work on conserving the rhinos from poachers such as, Non Governmental Organisation (NGO) such as World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (5).

Rhinos are also killed by hunters to obtained their horns which are use to manufacture trophies as it worth a lot of money. Nationally, the use of rhino horns for medical purposes has been illegal since 1993. There is still a need for conservation of rhinos in South Africa as they add value in our economy because of their horns which are very much expensive in the market (5).

Currently rhinos face the threat of extinction in the wild. The remaining of rhino horns is abundant in east Africa. There are five different types of rhinos living; these are black rhino, white rhino, Indian Rhino, Javan Rhino and Sumatran Rhino (2).

The Black rhino (Diceros bicornis) prefers to live in grassland, tropical bushlands, and savannahs in Africa (3). Its diet is a browser using its upper lips to grasp branches, twigs, stems and leaves. D. bicornis and the white rhino (Ceratotherium simum) have two big horns on their nose. D. bicornis and C. simum are mostly found in Southern and central Africa. C. simum lives in short-grass and long –grass savannahs It has a neutral grey colour (1).

The Indian Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) is found in southern Nepal and in Northern India but it prefers to live in riverine grasslands and in floodplains. R. unicornis feeds on fruit, leaves, trees, grasses, cultivated crops and shrub branches. The R. unicornis and the Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) have one horn and have brown-gray colour (8). The Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is found in Ujung Kulon National Park on the island of Java in Indonesia and it prefers to live in lowland tropical rainforest. The R . sondaicus are mostly browser but it can graze. The R . sondaicus has gray colour and hairless (7).

The Sumatran Rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) is mostly distributed in Southeast Asia of Indonesia and Malaysia. It prefers to live in Tropical rainforest. D. sumatrensis Feeds on fruit, leaves, twigs and bark. The Sumatran Rhino has two horns and is red-brown in colour (6).

All rhinos are herbivores. All rhinos have large heads, thick legs, excellent hearing, broad chest and poor eyesight. All rhinos have no true horns as they do not have the bony cores that are found in other animals like sheep, goats and antelopes. The horns of rhinos are not attached to skull. Its horns have keratin fibers unlike those that are found in fingernails and hairs of human. Rhinos used their horns for several purpose; they use their horns to defend themselves and their young against predators (4).

The international trade in rhino horn indicate that the above mentioned rhinos are listed as endangered. The most endagered rhino today is black rhino because in 1900s they were abundant. In 1995, the black rhino were decreased to be less than 2,500 in number (3). A few decade years ago, the world rhino exceeded 100,000. Presently the world rhinos population are less than 11, 000 (3). The rhinos were decreased in number as a results of poaching and illegal trade of rhino horns.

The international traders place law agencies in South Africa to limit problem of illegal trade of endangered species and poaching. The South Africa authorities try to stop the illegal trade in the rhino horns (2).

The major rhinoceros population are found in South Africa National park including provincial reserve in Kwazulu Natal. Currently, all the reserves having rhinos are patrolled on a daily basis. During the patrol, the game rangers report any things that cause the mortality of rhino. The Non Governmental Organisation (NGO) such as World Wildlife Fund (WWF) makes vast contributions towards the purchase of specialised monitoring horns of rhino (5).

Today is not easy for one to buy the horns of rhinos because all over the province each stock of horns are marked and registered. The South Africa National Park (SANP) marks the rhino horns stocks and keeps the registers of all legal stocks (2). The horns of rhinos are marked with a number and serial number that includes codes for the place in which the horns where found. Rhinos are protected under the (CITES) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Agreements to limit the illegal trade on animals are made with more than 120 nations (2).

The WWF and Endangered Wildlife Trust are actively intervening in South Africa conservation by decreasing the problem of poaching and the level of illegal trade of endagered species. In South Africa, they said that anyone who poaches rhino or selling the horns of rhinos without permision will be given the fine of R100 000 or 10 years in prison. The legal trade in endangered rhinos will help to protect the remaining rhinos from extinction.

References

1. Wikipedia contributors. endangered species [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 13, 22:33 UTC [Cited 2007 Mar 14]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species

2. Robert Savannah,1998. Rhinoceros [Online].[Cited, 13 March 2007]. Available from: http://www.fws.gov/species/species_accounts/bio_rhin.html

3. Anonymous. 2006. South Africa Conservation.[Online].[Cited, 13 march 2007]. Available from: http://www.go2africa.com/south-africa/environment/conservation.asp

4. E. Martin, 1983. Rhino exploitation [Online].[Cited, 12 March 2007]. Available from: http://www.deltaenviro.org.za/resources/envirofacts/rhinos.html

5. SafariNow.com Home page. Rhinoceros [Online].[Cited 11 March 2007]. Available from: http://www.safarinow.com/cms/african-rhino/irie.aspx

6. Barger N, 1995. endangered species- Rhinoceros [Online].[Cited, 09 march 2007]. Available from: http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/n/w/nwb107/rhino.html

7. Jessica D. Rhino [Online].[Cited, 14 March 2007].Available from:http://www.fsd.k12.ca.us/Art/endangered/rhinos.html

8. Kathleen E, The Illegal Trade in Endangered Species1; African security review[Internet]. 1997 [Cited, 11 March 2007] 6 (1). Available from: http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/6No1/DuBois.html

Linette Netshiheni

CSIR

Pretoria

0001

Tell: 012 841 2133

Fax: 012 842 3676

tnetshiheni@csir.co.za

Weblog: http://tnetshiheni-linette.blogspot.com/

CONSERVATION OF GREAT WHITE SHARKS

2007-03-09T14:40:00.000+02:00

The white sharks are classified in the kingdom Animalia from the phylum Chordata, they are of the class Chrondrichthyes from the family Camnidae and genus Carchardon. The white sharks are scientifically called Carchadon Carchardrians [1]. The great white sharks are known as the white sharks, white pointer or white death [2]. They are extremely large, body shaped like torpedo with silver to blue – grey colour and white underside with pointed snout. They have a Standard Dorsal fin (is on top of the shark), pectoral fins (bottom - front and rear) and Caudal fin (crescent shaped tail) and additional of two small pelvic fins. The fins are important because they drive and guide the sharks through the water in a streamline motion like that of an airplane. White sharks have 3 000 teeth arranged in several rows, their teeth are in the shape of a triangular and are 7.62 cm long [1].

The white sharks are more likely to be found in ocean water, deep or coastal waterways but especially Islands with high populations of Pinnipeds. Pinnipeds are defined as the marine mammals that are characterised by hair, flippers, e.g. sea lions, elephant seals etc. They can weigh up to 3175 Kg but the average weighed between 1361 to 2268 Kg and they are 3 to 4.5 m long. The white sharks feed on seals, elephant seals, sea lions, other fish, dolphins, sea turtles, otter, small toothed whales, carrion etc [1].

These types of sharks are less abundant globally than other sharks. Should there be a high fishing rate; the population of the great white sharks will be lowered because their reproduction and growth rate is slow [3]. The female white sharks can reproduce from 12 to 15 years and the male from 8-9 years. The gestation period for the great white shark is more than a year [4]. Their annual reproduction rate is 2-6 pups and this is considered as the slowest reproductive rate [5].

Minister of Environment and Heritage, Dr David Kemp of Australia indicated that the great white sharks declined by 20% over the last three generations and in some areas [6]. Australia is recognised being the world leader in the protection of the sharks. South Africa, USA, Namibia, Malta and the Maldives are also protecting the great white sharks [6].

Human have impact in the declining of the white sharks, during the mid of 1960’s the gills nest were placed in the large coast of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. The main aim of placing the gills nest was to protect the bathers from the sharks. As a result, the white sharks and other sharks travelling along the coast are still entangled in the nest and they die of asphyxiation. Asphyxiation is a death that results from lack of supply of oxygen to the brain. However, the sport fisheries threaten the great white sharks worldwide. The sport fisheries seek the white sharks as trophies and if accidentally caught by commercial fisheries that price their fins [3]. Some other people hunt the large jaws of white shark because they can have USS 10,000 for collecting the jaws [4]. The fins of the sharks are valuable in the Asian fish market because they are used as the shark fins soup [3].

Dr. Ramón Bonfil, shark expert, WCS Conservation Fisheries Scientist, in partnership with the South African Marine and Coastal Management Branch, with collaboration of University of Pretoria, University of Cape Town and Natal Sharks Board launched a study of great white sharks. They were using a satellite tracking devices and other techniques to collect information on the movement and seasonality of the great white shark. The research started in 2002 and since 2002, they attached 43 satellite tags of which 25 tags were the pop-up archival tags (PAT Tags). The PAT tags records the environmental data surrounding the shark once every minute. The data gathered is send via satellite at a later programmed time at the end of the experiment. The remaining 18 satellite tags were attached to white sharks during their research. At the end of their study, the following will be known: specific preferred habitats of the sharks, how to design the protection measures that will guarantee the survival of the great white sharks globally [3].

The sport fisheries together with the commercial fisheries must stop fishing the great white sharks. The sharks also showed that they hunt people, in 1995, Australia launched its bit to conserve the great white shark and on the very same day one of the fisherman, David Weir was attacked and killed by a great white shark [6]. The net that is placed in the ocean to protect the bather should be of the size that will not injure the sharks because the great white sharks are also declining because of the asphyxiation. The system that is used by the Dr Ramon Bonfil and his team should be followed, as they are aiming to design the protection measures that will guarantee the survival of the great white sharks.

References

1. Anonymous. Unknown Date. Great White Shark Taxonomy & Description. [Cited 08/03/2007: 11h00]. Available from:
http://www.tigerhomes.org/animal/great-white-shark-taxonomy.cfm.

2. Wikipedia contributors. Great white shark [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 8, 06:23 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 9]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_white_shark&oldid=113517316

3. Bonfil R. 2002. South Africa. Great White Shark Conservation. Marine Conversation Program. [08/03/2007; 14h00]. Available from: http://www.wcs.org/international/marine/marineafrica/gws.

4. The White Shark Trust. 2002. South Africa. [Cited 08/03/2007, 13h00]. Available from: http://www.whitesharktrust.org/pages/index.html

5. Kemp D. 2004. Australia Moves to Protect the Great White Shark. Australian government. [cited 07/03/2007, 12h00]. Available from:
http://www.prbo.org/cms/index.php?mid=215

6. Cribb J. and O’Brien N. 1995. Call to protect great white shark. The Australian [Cited 08/03/2007, 10h00]. Available from:
http://ink.news.com.au/mercury/mathguys/articles/1995/950914a1.htm.

Image credits

1.http://www.apexpredators.com/store/showCategoriesProducts.asp?categoryID=6

2. http://www.wcs.org/international/marine/marineafrica/gws

Ms Evelyn Maleka
CSIR, Research and Development Core
P.O. Box 395
Pretoria
0001
Tel: (012) 841 2133/2807
Fax: (012) 841 4405
Email: emaleka@csir.co.za
http://malekaevelyn.blogspot.com/

CONSERVATION OF FISHES IN SOUTH AFRICA

2007-03-09T14:19:00.000+02:00

Many people in South Africa rely in the ocean for their food, extraction of minerals and recreation (1). This reliance by people in the marine food puts the oceans under pressures which also changes how the marine ecosystem functions (1). In South Africa unauthorized hunting of the wild animals on land is restricted compared to hunting of the marine organisms. The major threat in the marine environment in South Africa is the exploitation of the marine organisms. Many fishing industries are faced with uncertainty if the pressure in the fishing of hakes is not reduced (3). Conservation of the marine organisms needs to be done through public awareness. The ocean provides more than 200 million people with jobs around the world (2). The biodiversity of the ocean and its natural resources is not well managed which makes it unsustainable.

It is estimated that 95 million tons of fishes are caught per year in South Africa (1). The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) declared that nine of the sixteen major fishing zones are overfishing (1). The removal of large amount of fish in the ocean disrupts the marine ecosystem in all levels and disturbs both physical and biological environment (1). The South African government stress the sustainable catches of fish as primary objective without considering the environment and the species which are not targeted. The primary objective of catching fishes has failed all around the world because of the decrease in the number of fish. As fish depend on other organisms in the marine ecosystem to maintain its productive capability, the survival of other organisms such as algae is not taken into consideration by managers (1). This will have negative impacts if the structure of the ecology and its process which supports the production stock is affected by overfishing.

Nearly all parts of the marine environments are affected by the human activities. People who are catching fishes are now targeting fishes which are found in deep sea compared to the off-shore fishing (2). Targeting of the fishes in the deep water is attributed to the fact that, fishes in the shallow water have been depleted. Natural refuges are now becoming scarce in the coastal environment because of the improvement of technology and the access of the human beings (1). Some of the human activities, exploitation, disturbance and pollution in the ecosystem are now reduced in the Proclamation of Marine protected areas (MPAs) (1). The main function of the MPAs is to preserve the representatives of the community of the species into its natural states (1). The MPAs help in the conservation of the marine species by providing sites which are not disturbed with monitoring, education, tourism and the research.

The management of catching fishes in South Africa remain that of the single species approach which often reduces the mortality which occurs accidentally and dumping (1). The method of fishing which is used in the catching of the fishes is known as bottom-trawl which is responsible in the high number of catches and fisheries in South Africa. These trawlers operate in the area of high diversity and this result in the catches of the unwanted species. It is fortunate that nowadays trawlers are equipped with excluders which reduce catching of the fishes which have some fins (1). Other trawlers for catching fishes have small sizes of meshes as to allow small species which are catched accidentally to escape (2).

REFERENCES

1. Attwood, C. L. Moloney, C. L. Stenton-Dozey, J. Jackson, L. F. Heydorn, A. E. F. and Probyn, T. A. 2000. Marine biology. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 05]: Available: http://www.nrf.ac.za/publications/marinerep/conserve.htm

2. Van Der Elst, R. 2002. Harvesting nature’s bounty wisely: Serial overfishing depletes species. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 06]: Available from: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2002/september/overfish.htm

3. Morris, R. 2006. Consultant warns on overfishing of hake. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 05]: Available from: http://www.busrep.co.za/index.php?fSectionId=561&fArticleId=3444466

Peter Muvhali
CSIR PTA
0001
Tell no: 012 8142133
Fax: 012 8423676
E-mail: smuvhali@csir.co.za
URL: http://www.blogsoccer-peter.bogspot.com

THE NEED FOR A SUSTAINABLE USE OF THE MEDICINAL PLANTS IN KWAZULU-NATAL

2007-03-09T09:27:00.000+02:00

There is a great demand for traditional medicines in Kwazulu-Natal (1). The informal sector trading of indigenous plants products for medicines and other products of the plants is in the increase. Population growth, development, unemployment, inflow of large number of immigrants in search of work and few primary health resources lead to the increase usage of the native plants products for medicine (1). The use of traditional medicine is exacerbated by many values attached to the native plants such as women who are menstruating are not allowed to collect other plants as they will lose power.

Therefore, high demand for indigenous plants products results in a high intensity of harvesting of these plants. Sustainability of indigenous plants such as Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Isiphephetho in Zulu) and Boweia volubilis that are faced with extinction need to be encouraged (1). Medicinal plants need to be sustained because of the high rate of natural habitats destruction, shrunk and modification. Urbanization and commercial agriculture are the two main cause of habitat destruction. If not sustained, medicinal plants will become extinct, which means that plants which save lives will be lost.

In both urban and rural areas of Kwazulu-Natal, native plants are greatly utilized, because of the economic importance attached to them. These indigenous plants provide people with different goods such as building materials, fuel wood, traditional medicines and wild fruits (2). The importance of native plants products together with the needs for sustainable supply of the medicinal plants need to be sustained for future generation. People earning low wages in both rural and urban areas often use traditional medicines as a primary health care. The use of these traditional medicines is dominant in the province of KwaZulu-Natal because of the highest rate of poverty in the province (2).

Factors that encourage people to use traditional medicines include: prices which are low compared to western medicines, local availability, easy access to the traditional healers which tend to save the transport cost and other diseases which western medicines cannot cure such as Hlogwana in Nothern Sotho. Hlogwana occurs when the baby is born and the skull is not fully joint. The Government of National Unity (GNU) also recognizes the importance of traditional medicines (3). Another important factor which leads to the need for the sustainable use of the medicinal plants is their contribution in the economic growth of the province of Kwazulu-Natal. It is estimated that medicinal plants generate R62 million each year in Kwazulu-Natal which lead to the creation of jobs (1). The more the money is generated, the higher will be the number of the people employed in the gathering of medicinal plants. This is because medicinal plants are no longer found in abundance near the place where traditional healers work. The money is generated through the selling of the indigenous plants products such as roots, barks and other mixture of plants materials. Many trees are stripped of their bark for medicinal purposes.

The removal of large number of the trees results in negatively impacts, both ecologically and socially (1). This means that the majority of the people will lose medicines, and healers will lose their livelihoods. Medicinal plants are harvested from savanna, grassland and forests (1). In future, the remains of the above mentioned biomes will never meet the needs of the people. The majority of the medicinal products which are sold come from the biome of forest. The population of the wild plant species are in the decrease (3).

Planting the high number of wild plant species will lead to low unsustainable use of the indigenous plants. Programmes such as public awareness and permits to the traders need to be implemented. Conservation of medicinal plants for long term need to be sustained by the land owners. The supply and demand of the indigenous plants products were highly unknown in the past. The planting and usage of the medicinal plants has been undermined by both the agricultural sectors and formal health. Good management of the medicinal plant forests will lead to the sustainable benefits on both social and ecological perspectives.

REFERENCES

1. Maender, M.; Maender, J; and Breen, C. 1996. Promoting the cultivation of
Indigenous plants for markets: experiences from Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa.
[Online]. [Cited 2007 March 02]: Available from:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3735e/w3735e16.htm

2. Karmann, M. and Lorbach, I. 1996. Utilization of non-timber tree products in
Dryland areas: Examples from Southern and Eastern Africa. [Online]. [Cited 2007
March 01]: Available from:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3735e/w3735e12.htm#TopOfPage

3. Botha, J. Witkowski, E. T. F. and Shackleton, M. C. 2004. Market profiles and trade in medicinal plants in the lowveld, South Africa. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 02]: Available from: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=213333

Peter Muvhali
CSIR PTA
0001
Tell no: 012 8142133
Fax: 012 8423676
E-mail: smuvhali@csir.co.za
URL: http://www.blogsoccer-peter.bogspot.com

HUMAN INDUCED POLLUTION AT RIETVLEI DAM NATURE RESERVE

2007-03-08T16:01:00.000+02:00

Rietvlei Dam Nature Reserve is one the grassland urban reserve on the central South African highveld [1]. Apart from being grassland, on the other part of the reserve there is a peat wetland which provide habitat to aquatic plant and animal species. There are number of plants and animal species that are found within the reserve. Exotic species such as blue gums are found. The dam on the reserve is very important source of water for Pretoria and the surrounding areas. Rietvlei Dam, situated on the Hennops River, has been a source of water supply to the city of Pretoria since 1933 [2].

On the reserve, there is a peat wetland. The wetland of the reserve is regarded as a good asset [3]. This wetland plays an important role in purification system of water thus improving water quality. This is because the reeds and other plants in the wetland slow down the water movement and there by suspended solids materials are settled out before they can be deposited into the dam. . The presence of this wetland; minimize the cost of cleaning water, which normally involves expensive cleaning chemicals. Water flow is slowed by vegetation where the suspended solids are settled out. These biological processes remove heavy metals and toxic substances.

Pollution is a serious problem facing Rietvlei dam nature reserve. Pollution can be defined as the chemical or physical agent in an inappropriate location or concentration [4]. It involves the introduction of substances and any form of energy in the environment. Pollution can be natural or human induced i.e. naturally through volcanic eruptions and human activities such as construction, minerals extraction and transportation are sources of pollution. Three main components of the environment tend to be affected by pollution – air, water, and land or soil. [4]

There are different sources of pollutants that tend to affect the Rietvlei dam nature reserve; agricultural fields, airport and human settlement and development projects. The first one is the fact that on the eastern and southern part of the reserve, the area is used for agricultural purpose. The use of crop residues, manure and pesticides, tends to contaminate water – these pollutants are introduced into water bodies as a result of surface run-off. Once they are in the water body, they are distributed far and wide through the movement of water. In non-flowing water body, pollutants decrease the water level. The use of nitrogenous fertilizers results to nitrite contamination of drinking water. [4]

Rietvlei dam nature reserve is found some few kilometres away from Johannesburg international airport and it is close to the R25 high way [1]. The aircrafts and motor vehicles are the main source of particulates that result in air pollution. These particulates are released into the atmosphere. When they are in the atmosphere, they are dispersed to different points away and they are then deposited in the water bodies (Rietvlei dam). They are normally deposited in form of wet deposition or precipitation. When these are deposited into the water body, they pollute water there by disturbing aquatic ecosystem. Contaminated water become unsuitable for human consumption and may cause diseases such as cholera. [4]

Rietvlei Dam nature reserve is located next to the human settlement (Centurion) [3]. Land pollution is very serious problem in the area surrounding Rietvlei dam nature reserve. This includes biodegradable, combustible and non-combustible waste. Household waste such as kitchen refuse, plastics, bottles and metal objects are discarded everywhere. After they are just discarded, they end up in the dam (Rietvlei) polluting the water.

Contaminated water threatens human health through the direct consumption. These may cause diseases such as cholera. Contamination of water bodies has impact on aquatic ecosystem. The enrichment of nutrients into water may lead to algae which may shade streams. When the biodegradable organic matters are discarded into the water, the oxygen content is reduced and water becomes dark. [4]

Management of solid waste can be done in variety of ways, this includes land filling; where refuse are collected from the source point and then dumped in pit or a trench. The pit or trench must be properly designed and prepared; this will ensure its long life span. After dumping the waste can be compressed and compacted. Composting can be the other way of reducing waste. It is the process whereby there is induced decomposition of biodegradable waste to produce special humus known as compost. This compost can be used as manure, soil conditioner and reclamation of hills and gullies.

Air pollution can be addressed by enforcing air pollution standards or clean air amendments act, there by setting emission standards. For machinery manufactures, they have to be mandated to install exhaust control or less polluting engines [4]. The strict punishment in form is needed to offenders. Raising electricity and gasoline rates will discourage waste and inefficiency. [4 and 5]

Awareness campaigns are essential in order to educate the public about the importance of the Rietvlei dam nature reserves in water supply. It is important that all activities including human development projects, farming or settlement not allowed next to the reserve.

References:

1. Southern African birding cc. Rietvlei Dam Nature Reserve. [Internet]. Accessed 2007 Mar 06. Available from:
http://www.sabirding.co.za/birdspot/050214.asp

2. Toerien, D.F and Walmsley, R.D. (1979). The Chemical Composition of the Upper Hennops River and its Implications on the Water Quality of Rietvlei Dam.
Water S.A. Vol 5, No.2 p77-89. Available fromhttp://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=7909843&q=Rietvlei+dam+and+water+supply+in+pretoria+&uid=1014880&setcookie=yes

3. Rietvlei nature reserve: Historic background. [Internet] [Accessed on: 2007 Mar 06]. Available from:
(http://www.tshwane.gov.za/rietvlei_history.cfm

4. Encyclopedia of Public Health information about pollution [Internet] Encyclopedia, The Gale Group, Inc. Available from:
http://www.answers.com/pollution&r=67#copyright

5. Bascon, R. (1996) Health effects of outdoor air pollution,
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine [Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.]. Vol. 153, no. 1, pp. 3-50. 1996. Available from:
http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=3914125&q=definition+of+pollution&uid=1014880&setcookie=yes

Lufuno Mukwevho
CSIR Pretoria
P.O. Box 395
Pretoria
0001
Tel: (012) 841 2133
Fax: 012 842 7024
Cell: 0723175626
E-mail: lmukwevho@csir.co.za

CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION

2007-03-06T16:12:00.000+02:00

Most changes in the environment affect almost everything on the earth surface. These disruptions on the earth surface are dangerous and lead to the degradation of the planet even though change occurs natural – weather, climate, tectonic movement, etc. we are just speeding up the process. One of the issues which need to be looked at is deforestation. Deforestation has environmental consequences that most people are not aware of – such as global warming. Deforestation is when an area which was forested changes to be non-forested (1). This is caused by many factors, for example urban development. The removal of trees leads to the degradation of the environment with reduced biodiversity (1).

Deforestation alters with the rate or extent of deforestation changes the carbon cycle, hydrological cycle and the amount of soil nutrition (2). Trees reduce the impacts of rain drops on the soil so if the trees are removed the vegetation is altered with because some plants depend on these trees so that they can grow. Removal of trees alters the amount of water that penetrates the soil and groundwater. This leads to increased surface runoff and decreased infiltration and percolation. Evaporation and evapo-transpiration which are the processes which takes place from the trees and plants will be reduced due to deforestation. These will lead to reduced evaporation these mean that the energy from the sun is able to warm the earth surface, which will lead to rise in temperatures. The essential nutrients such as nitrogen will be washed out of the soil by run-off and these lead to soil erosion. The soil will end up being infertile and acidic (3)

In rural areas deforestation is caused by people because of the need for fire wood. The wood is used for fire for cooking, even though some of them have electricity. In this way they save electricity since they use it for lights only and use wood for cooking and boiling water. Fire releases carbon dioxide which is the dominant green house gas which contributes to global warming. Thus destruction of trees leads to the decreased consumption of carbon dioxide by plants which results in the increase of temperature. Trees increase the quality of air by taking in carbon dioxide and it also traps other particles such as methane which are released by factories (2). Removal of trees lead to the “albedo effect which reflects more heat and light back into the atmosphere than would be the case if the dun shone on green trees” (4)

I was busy capturing data for Natural Resource and Environment at CSIR the questionnaires was taking about the type of energy preferred by people at Zimbabwe. Most people preferred wood because it was free unlike the other energy source such as electricity and generator. Some of the people complained about deforestation because almost each an every person is starting to use wood so that they can reduce the cost.

Some people think that deforestation is caused by poverty, but it is not only poverty that causes deforestation even urban development (5). When a town or city is built, the area has to be cleared of vegetation. Ecological functions can be assigned economic values, and development is not always good from an economic point of view. As a result of deforestation the temperatures are increasing dramatically. Places like Polokwane might be faced with drought in the mere future, if the condition does not change.

Deforestation differs from country to country. In Ethiopia deforestation is caused by people. People clear the forest for their personal needs such as fuel, harvesting their own crops, building of houses, e.t.c. Ethiopia is the second largest populated country in Africa and there is also famine. The population of Ethiopia increases by the day and people needs a place to stay so most of the trees have to cut so that people have a land. In the early twentieth century about 42 hectares of Ethiopia was covered by trees but now it has less than 14.2 percent of trees remaining (1). In Nigeria the cause of deforestation are logging, subsistence agriculture and fire wood. Nigeria has lost more than half of its forest in the past five years and is considered the world’s highest deforested country (1).

How can we prevent/control deforestation, especially in less developed countries? We should start implementing some efforts (or “measures”) to slow deforestation or stop cutting wood. We should also start replanting trees just like Wangari Muta Maathai who was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize for “her contribution to sustainable development democracy peace” (6) in 2004. She planted over 30 million trees across Kenya to prevent soil erosion. In South Africa and other countries such as Australia, Canada and others have a day where they plant trees. The day in which trees are planted world wide is called Arbor Day (7).

We should also start using wood cautiously, remembering the after effects of cutting all the plants. People should also be educated about how the importance of plants. We should start taking care of trees and plants, if we do not do so we are going to pay the price.

References:

[1]. Wikipedia contributors. Deforestation [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 1, 10:30 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 1]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deforestation&oldid=111799234

[2]. Beamon, C and Cargill, C.J. Deforestation and Desertification. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.munfw.org/archive/45th/csd1.htm

[3]. Jocelyn Stock Andy Rochen. The Choice: Doomsday or Arbor Day. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/deforestation.htm

[4]. Barnekow Lilleso, J. P, Dhakal, P, Kjaer, E. D, Nathan, I and Shrestha, R. (2000). Conservation of trees through use by local people and decentralized seed distribution supported by a tree seed programme. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AC648E/ac648e0m.htm

[5]. Collins, J. Deforestation. [Internet]. Last Updated: 2001 Feb 01. Available from: http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/Envfacts/facts/deforestation.htm
[6]. Wikipedia contributors. Wangari Maathai [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Mar 6, 06:06 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 6]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wangari_Maathai&oldid=113003501

[7]. Wikipedia contributors. Arbor Day [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Feb 26, 21:01 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 6]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arbor_Day&oldid=111158566.

Lethabo Mosomane
CSIR
Pretoria
0001
Tel: 27 12 841 2133
Fax: 27 12 842 3676
mail: lmosomane@csir.co.za
http://lmosomane.blogspot.com

The Modjadji cycad Encephalartos transvenosus

2007-03-06T13:52:00.001+02:00

Cycads are an ancient group of seed plants meaning that they are spermatophytes. During the Jurassic period, cycads were common in many parts of the world e.g Japan. Today cycads are very few in tropical and subtropical regions and in southern and northern hemisphere. While large numbers of cycads are found on the continents of Australia, South America, and South Africa. Many cycads live 200 million years ago before the dinosaurs roamed the earth. Cycads grew well during eons period that is 150 million years ago (1). The arrival of dinosaurs caused a decrease in the number of cycads (1) because they fed on cycads. During that time, herbivores were dominant.

Today cycads are few and there is a need for Department of Agriculture Conservation and Environment to conserve few cycads that are available as they do not grow anywhere around the world
Cycads are facing the threat of extinction due to over-utilization by people. People over use and destroy cycads by harvest the palnts and plough cycads in private gardens around the world because their leaves are very beautiful and attractive.

The aim of this article is to investigate the large number of cycads (Encephalartos transvenosus ) in the Modjadji nature reserve.

The Modjadji cycad is one of the largest cycads in South Africa. Encephalartos transvenosus is being protected in Modjadjie Nature Reserve which is found to the north of Tzaneen. People of Balobedu said Encephalartos transvenosus is "Modjadji's palm" and they named it after the Rain Queen. The Rain Queen or Modjadji is the queen of Balobedu . Queen modjadji is areal person and she is known by its power of making rain. Sometimes the Encephalartos plants are commonly called bread palms because the stem is used to make crude bread.

The people of Bolebedu are using these plants as a sacred and they also use it to receive the royal protection from their rain queen that is why they respect these plants. This species is threatened at Modjadji Nature Reserve. The Department of Water Affairs and Tourism (DWAF) plays an important role by conserving cycads plants available at modjadji nature reserve

One can say, cycads are similar to ferns or palms as they have large divided leaves. yes, they are, but not very closely – they’re still more related to palms than either is to us, for example, Cycads are similar to primitive seed plants because the motile sperm produced by living seed plants of cycads are similar to those produced by primitive seed (5).

E. transvenosus is a tree that can reach the height of approximately 6m (2). Cycads fall in the genus Encephalartos and the family Zamiaceae. The plant is not found in large numbers that they tend to grow in small groups. The species has numerous leaves that are arranged in a dense crown. The leaves that can spread up to 2.5 m. E. transvenosus are an evergreen plant. Cycads have large stout trunk and compound leaves. The leaves are light green with fine brown hairs wile the mature E. transvenosus has dark glossy green colour. Its leaves can spread up to 2,5m long. The E. transvenosus is a deciduous plant that produces golden brown cones during late summer. Its trunk can grow up to 45cm Diameter (2). E. transvenosus can survive approximately 100 years.

The species prefers to live in free frost area. It grows well in drained soil, light shade and full sun (4). The cones of E. transvenosus are destroyed by baboons as they occasionally break the immature cones. The seeds are eaten by beetles. The E. transvenosus play an important role in a diet of reptiles that are found in the Modjadji reserve. The management of modjadji reserve are trying to balance and protect this species from reserve. Many animals such as squirrels, monkeys, birds and baboons are attracted by the brightly colour of E. transvenosus. The species is easily propagated from seeds. The species need to conserves from their predators.

Indigenous tribes obtained starch from the stems of E. transvenosus and used it for food. They soaked and grinded the nuts of E. transvenosus in order to remove the nerve toxin although they do not remove the entire toxin from the plants which cause health problem to the people.

The mudjadfji nature reserve is found in the Bolobedu Mountains near Duiwelskloof harbours having some of the most fascinating plants in Southern Africa. One of these plants is E. transvenosus. E. transvenosus is endemic to Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga in South Africa. The reserve covers an area of 530 hectors. E. transvenosus is protected in the Letaba district that receives an annual rainfall of 1500mm (3). The region is a frost free area.

All Encephalartos species are endangered excluding the E. transvenosus because is protected at Modjadji Nature Reserve. Cycads decrease in number as people destroy their habitat. Conservation

The habitats of cycad are being destroyed in the entirety of the world. The forests were cleared for timber and for plant crops e.g. Mexico. In countries where cycads are endemic, plants are being destroyed for housing e.g. South Africa. Currently, there is an increase demand for cycads as the prices of cycads have increased. In South Africa Encephalartos species are selling for thousands of dollars Premium. A botanical garden can remove a cycad from modjadji cycads reserve for research purposes.

There are many people that want to conserve cycads in their own way. If we all work together, and do what is best for the cycads, cycad will no longer decrease in number.

References
1. Ken Hill, 2004. Introduction to Cycads.[Online].[Cited, 02 March 2007].Available from: http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/PlantNet/cycad/cycintro.html

2. Christopher J.2004. Encephalartos transvenosus [Online].[Cited, 27 February 2007]. Available from: http://www.conifers.org/za/en/transvenosus.htm

3 Winter J.2005. Encephalartos transvenosus Stapf & Burtt Davy [Online].[Cited, 26 February 2007]. Available from: http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantefg/encephtrans.htm

4. Wikipedia contributors. Cycads [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 March 4, 13:16 UTC [Cited 2007 Feb 27].Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycad

5. David L. 2006 Cycads [Online].[Cited 04 March 2007]. Available from: http://www.nd.edu/~fboze/cycads.htm

Linette Netshiheni
CSIR Pretoria
0001
Tell: 012 841 2133
Fax: 012 842 3676
E-mail tnetshiheni@csir.co.za
Weblog: http://tnetshiheni-linette.blogspot.com/

THREATS TO SEA TURTLES IN UNITED STATES

2007-03-06T12:12:00.000+02:00

Sea turtles are reptiles species classify in phylum Chordata and order Festudines. Sea turtles are categorised into two families called Dermochelyidae (leatherback turtle) and Chelonnidae (kemp’s ridleys turtles, olive ridleys turtles, green turtles, hawksbill turtles, flatback turtles, and loggerhead sea turtles (1)). Sea turtles are aquatic (ponds, oceans, seas, lakes, rivers) dwellers and lay their eggs on terrestrial (beaches, dunes) (2). The internal organ of turtles is covered by hard (carapace and plastron) shells made of many fused bones called scutes (1). Shells protect the interior of such as heart from bacteria and parasites (1). Turtles have been in the planet since Triassic period about 200 million years ago (2).Sea turtles and their eggs are facing a high risk of becoming extinction in United States (3).

Loggerheads (Caretta caretta) and olive’s ridleys turtles ( Lepidochelys olivecea), were listed as threatened in United States by Endangered Species Act (4 )). Leatherbacks (Dermochely coriacea) green turtles (Chelonia mydas), kemp’s ridleys (Lepidochelys kempii), flatback turtles (Natator depressa), and hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) were listed as endangered in United States by Endangered Species Act (4).

Human activities at the edge of the oceans can have the negative impact on sea turtles and their nesting habitat. Constructions of roads and houses at the edge of beaches have the negative impact on the nesting habitat of turtles. Sea turtles lay eggs and bury them in beach sand so the eggs under the soil can be damaged during the movement of people from one place to another accidentally. Human also harvest shells of the turtles and use them to make jewelleries (5). The lights from the houses built near the sea and night driving disturb the female sea turtles from nesting and return to the sea. It will decrease the natality (birth) of turtles (5). Lights can confuse hatchings on beaches and they will migrate to the land, where they often die of dehydration. Some people harvest eggs of the turtles for the economic purposes while some harvest for the food (6).

Some people believed that the blood of turtles could be used to cure disease. Luis Felipe Lopez has done a research about the blood matter and King Louise XI confirmed that the blood cure his leprosy disease (7). The King says that he used the turtles blood to rub the affected area.

Polluted water by oil spilt, fertilizers, petroleum, and urban run off chemicals have a negative impact on sea turtles. The above-mentioned pollutants can cause diseases and kill sea turtles. They can also kill prey of sea turtles (marine plants and animals) in the oceans and the sea turtles will end up not having food (5). The death of turtles can cause by dumping trash near the beaches. Turtles will die after eating the debris such as plastic bags, tar balls, balloons, pellets, and bottle (5).

Global warming and climate change also have an impact on sea turtles (8). As we know that sea turtles have temperature-dependent sex determination that will increase in global temperature. For those who do not know sex of turtles hatchling while they are still in eggs determine by temperature. Scientists believe that cool temperature produce male turtles while warm temperature produces female turtles (8). When temperature increases, the population of sea turtles become unstable because some turtles hatchling died (8).

All people must follow the laws and regulations to conserve turtles not getting extinction. International laws and agreements, organisations and individuals must cooperate and share the responsibility on conserving turtles. In the United States, the law forbids the purchase of items made from the turtles, for examples, buying jewelleries, and selling the eggs and meat of turtles (5)). The endangered Species Act is the national law that protects sea turtles (5). Other act includes Conservation on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and Marine Turtle Protection Act. The law stipulated that it is illegal to kill the sea turtles, to import and sell the products made by turtles. National Marine Fisheries Services, and Fish and Wildlife Services in United States also protect sea turtles (5).

People have to reduce their disturbances at the edge of the beach for example; they have to decrease impacts and lights in the beaches. People must stop dumping the debris near the beaches and it will help if public awareness is conducted to the communities. Sea turtles need the conservation that should focus on their nesting habitat. Oceans, rivers, and seas also need a monitoring to asses the health of the sea turtles and their prey.

References:

1. Roberson D. Available from: Sea Turtles: families Cheloniidae and Dermochelyidae. 2000 [Online]. September 23. [Cited 2007 February 26]. Available from: http://montereybay.com/creagrus/sea_turtles.html

2. Nicholas M. Light pollution and marine turtle hatchlings .2001. [Online]. [Cited March 2]. Available from: http://www.georgewright.org/184nicholas.pdf

3. Quintanilla E. Hurrcane Emily takes toll on sea turtles. 2007. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 5]. Available from:
http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0722/p04s02-woam.html?s=t5

4. Anonymous. Sea Turtle Species of the World. Caribbean Conservation Corporation &Sea Turtle survival league. 1995 [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 28]. Available from: https://www.cccturtle.org/sea-turtle-information.php?page=species_world

5. Anonymous. Sea Turtles Threats & Conservation. Caribbean Conservation Corporation &Sea Turtle survival league. 2003. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 28]. Available from: http://cccturtle.org/threats.htm

6. Anonymous. Marine turtles. Three of the seven existing species of marine turtles are critically endangered. 2007. [Online]. 2007 February 20 [Cited 2007 March 1] Available from:
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/marine_turtles/marine_turtles_threats/index.cfm

7. Anonymous. An Insight into Africa’s threatened sea turtles.2002. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 4]. Available from:
http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2002/issue1/0102p35.html

8. University of Exeeter. Scientists warn climate change risk to marine turtles. 2007. [Online]. [Cited 2007 March 2]. Available from:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070220003809.htm

Lizzy Maluleke
CSIR PTA
NISL- Ecological Informatics
P O Box 395
Pretoria
0001
E-mail mmaluleke@csir.co.za
Weblog: http://mmaluleke.blogspot.com

THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF SOCIAL TABOOS IN CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SPECIES AND THEIR HABITATS

2007-03-06T11:39:00.000+02:00

Taboos represent traditional social rules that regulate human behaviour [1]. Social taboos (on species and habitat) are also called Resources and Habitat Taboos (RHTs). RHTs include specific species, habitat, clan, temporal, segment, method, life history, and taboos [2]. Social taboos may protect endemic, threatened and keystone species and their habitats [1]. Taboo species may be used for traditional religion or medicinal purposes.

Specific species taboos are comprised of taboos that thoroughly protect plants and animals in space and time. The specific species can be avoided for different uses for example detrimental use, consumption, hunting and killing [3]. The radiated tortoise (Geochelone radiata) is a species native to Southern portion of Madagascar Island. The tortoise populations decreased by 20% after twenty-five years as a result of illegal harvesting for commercial trade and food by the Tandros people [4]. Geochelone radiata was then listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Geochelone radiata were protected by Malagasy National law since 1960 and is listed on Convention of International Endangered Trade in Endangered species in 1975 [5] Geochelone radiata is also one of the world rarer species and they were likely to go extinct [5]. The consumption of Geochelone radiata is articulated as taboo [4]

Species such as sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), mountain lion (Felis concolor ) and southern pocket gopher (Thomomys umbrinus emotus) are protected by Hindus’ specific species taboo all over the entirety of India [3]. Ficus stieligiosa is a keystone mutualist (species that depend on each other for their benefit, when the species that depend on dies, it will also get affected). Ficus stieligiosa is responsible for maintenance of tropical biological diversity. The threatened Felis concolor is a keystone predator that preys on vertebrates which feed on trees species with large seed. Felis concolor may control forest composting by favouring large seeded tree species on behalf of small seeded species. Thomomys umbrinus emotus are essential for moving large quantity of earth and they burrow, scrape and make bare area free from plants [1].

The threatened species are restricted by taboos in different community around the world from using number of birds and reptiles which are classified as threatened by IUCN. The species such as spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus); giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) and giant anteater (Myrmecophoga tridactyla) are protected by taboo in Peru and Achuars of Ecuador. The taboos were enforced by the Achuar within the area [1].

Habitat taboos control access and use of resources in a particular area [2] for example sacred habitat (trees and plant are allowed to grow without any disturbance). Sacred habitats are found in South America for instance Kuna of Pana and Africa, for instance Tanzania. The Mlinga forest reserve of Tanzania has a dam between Muinga and Ukindo Peak [7]. In Tanzania Wanyamwezi (Brachystegia species) are core for spiritual needs of the local people for both ritual and cultural purposes. The burial sites of the chiefs’ are respected and preserved. Conservationists are considering whether sacred groves could be used to promote in situ conservation of endangered species [6].

The Southern range dry spine of Madagascar declined in early 1970s as results of timber harvest, cattle herding and charcoal production [5]. However, small patches of forest were retained for sacred purposes. Small patches were relatively untouched, even in the mainly intensive used area. The sacred forest usually has a sub circular, 300 to 400m in diameter and occasionally contain tomb. However, due to taboo and entering restriction insufficient information is known about the spiny forest [5]

The dam has a big snake. Traditional healers are allowed to use forests for medicinal purposes and dam and other people are prohibited. Trees such as Adansoma digitata and Sterculia opendiculata are not cut because whoever cut these species may be affected by evil spirit. Trees that are found in a water sources and on top of the mountain are not cut. People believe that these trees bring rainfalls and conserve water [7]^.As a result, people respect their local taboos and religion by not using dam and cutting the trees.

Temporary taboos prohibit access to resources in time that is daily, periodic, weekly or monthly. The chief of Nkavele village may compel a periodic taboo after cyclones in season of severe drought to conserve food. Similarly, the chief of Nghomu village may place taboos on the use of coconut palms The Ghana people have a daily taboo which is obligated on fishing on a particular weekday for example Tuesday. The similar taboo is also articulated among northwest Newfoundland lobster fishers who avoid Sunday fishing [3].

Method taboos are responsible for controlling method and techniques for removal of species. Fishing using toxin is a taboo because toxins destroy coral reefs. The methods that were articulated as taboo in Oceania in some communities (for example Vanuata) include gill netting, spear fishing during the night and drop line fishing [3]. Different communities of Tuvalu and Kiribati are forbidden to use pressure lantern for dip netting of flying fish. These fishing methods are good for fishers but they may cause over fishing [3].

Life history taboos control the removal of species at vulnerable stages of its life history based sex, age, size or reproductive status [2]. The studies of life history taboo indicated analysis of spawning fish and bird eggs are expressed by taboo. The taboo of hunting fruit bats expressed in daytime settle on trees in midst of villages. As results bats are not overexploited in South India [3].

Segment taboos are responsible for decreasing the rate of exploiting a species [2]. The studies of Amazonian group indicated that segment taboo may decrease hunting pressure of some species with by approximately 50-80% [3] by granting access to specific people for instance chiefs.

Clan taboos usually involve totem (is any entity that stare over clan [8]) species. The clan members of Zaire’s Mbuti are forbidden from consuming totemic species such as leopards, buffaloes and bate antelopes [3]. Several animals are protected through restriction and prohibition in East Usambara forest in Tanzania for example, bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus ) and bohr reedbuck (Redunca redunca). The people of Tanzania believe that when they consume meat of these animals, they will have skin diseases. The bird such as Otus species were not killed because people believe that otus are associated with spirit. People also believe that by killing otus, they will encounter misfortune such as death [7]. People may believe the taboo because of their culture or religion.

The ethnic group of West and Central Africa are represented each of their clan with symbol of different wildlife species. To hunt and to eat such species is considered as taboo. The majority of people in Central Africa did not eat or hunt primates because they are closely resemble to human. Young girls and pregnant women were prohibited from eating the meat of monitor lizards, and forest crocodile [9]

The restriction on the use of certain animals, plants and habitat play an important role in conservation. The endemic, threatened and keystone species and their habitats will not go extinct if people continue to use their social taboo to conserve.

References

1. Colding, J., and C. Folke. The relations among threatened species, their protection, and taboos. Conservation Ecology [online] 1997 [cited 2007 Feb 27] 1(1): 6. Available from:
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol1/iss1/art6/manuscript.frames.html

2. Martinez D. 2001. Final Report for World Funds? U.S. Forest Service Upper Glade National Pilot Stewardship Project. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 27] Available from: www.ser.org/iprn/pdf/Upper_Glade_Final_Report.pdf

3. Colding, J., and C. Folke. 2000. The taboo system: Lesson about informal institution for nature management. [online] [cited 2007 Feb 27] Available from: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3970/is_200001/ai_n8896402/pg

4. Lingard M, Raharison N, Rabakondrianina E, Rakoarisoa J & Elmgyist. The role of taboos in conservation and management of species: The radiated tortoise in Southern Madagascar [Online] 2003 Jul-Dec [cited 2007 Feb 27] 1(2): Conservation and Society. Avaliable from: http://www.conservationandsociety.org/abs-1-2-03-4.html

5. Lingard M, Raharison N, Rabakondrianina E, Rakoarisoa J & Elmgyist. Conservation and Society. 2003. The role of taboos in conservation and management of species: The radiated tortoise in Southern Madagascar [Online]. [cited 2007 Feb 27] . Available from:
http://www.conservationandsociety.org/c_s_1_2-3-marlene.pdf.

6. Mgumia F.H and Oba G. Potential role of sacred groves in biodiversity in Tanzania. Environmental conservation [Online]. 2003 [cited 2007 Feb 27] 30(3):259-266. Available from: journals.cambridge.org/article_S0376892903000250

7. Kweka D. 2004. The role of local knowledge and institution in the conservation of forest resources in the East usambara. [Online].
[Cited 2007 February 27] Available from: http://www.unesco.org/mab/bursaries/mysrept/2003/kweka/finalRep.pdf.

8. Wikipedia contributors. Totem. [Online]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Feb 17, 18:22 UTC [cited 2007 Feb 27].
Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totem

9. White L. undated. Integrating conservation& development Central Africa [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 27]
Available from: www.bushmeat.org/pdf/Cons_Dvpt_Central_Africa.pdf

Masiya Kedibone
CSIR Pretoria
NISL-Ecological Informatics
P.O.Box395
Pretoria
0001
kmasiya@csir.co.za
http://kedibone-kedimasiya.blogspot.com

POVERTY INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

2007-03-05T12:25:00.000+02:00

Awareness and concern about environmental degradation have grown around the world over the last few decades; these concerns are shared by people of different nations, cultures, religions and social classes [1]. Poverty is defined as a condition of being poor [2]. Degradation is change from a higher state to a lower state [3]. Environmental degradation is a process induced by human behaviour and activities that damage the natural environment [4].

Poverty is considered as a great influence of environmental degradation. In many regions of the world, regional overgrazing has resulted in destruction of grazing lands, forest and soil. Air and water have been degraded [5]. The carrying capacity of the natural environment has been reduced. As the people become poorer, they destroy the resources faster [5]. They tend to overuse the natural resources because they don’t have anything to eat or any means of getting money except through the natural resources, they start to depend more on natural resources.

Poor people harvest natural resources for their survival or in order to meet their basic needs such as firewood, agricultural productions (such as maize), and water and wild plants for their medicine. All people regardless of being poor or rich depend on natural resources; the concern with poor people is that they are utilizing the resources directly. The rich people do depend on these resource but they do not go to the forest directly and harvest the resources.

Due to the lack of sufficient income people start to use and overuse every resource available to them when their survival is at stake. As desperate hunger leads to desperate strategies for survival, many trees are harvested for fire wood, timber and art craft. Most of the poor people use this fire wood as their source of income by selling them, and art craft products are also used for income generation. The roots of the trees are dug out for medicinal purpose. This leaves the soil exposed as the grasses are also grazed by animals and also collected for roofing the houses. When it rains the entire top and good soil are eroded which makes it difficult for that soil to produce better agricultural products.

Poor people often lack sufficient income and education to afford higher quality life where they can use electricity and also buy electric appliances to ease their domestic life. Instead of cutting trees for fire wood they can use electric stoves for cooking. They can also use electric heaters to warm themselves during winter month. Electricity can also slow down the firewood business as most people will no longer be relying on firewood as it takes time to prepare the fire using wood than just switching on the electricity. The use of electricity will make their lives simpler because it will save time, they won’t go to the field to fetch wood. The chances of been bitten by a snake or get injured are high when they are in field.
They have no quality drinking water as they pollute the rivers by washing inside them and by also using a river as a dumping site for the bins. The lack of education also prohibits them from practicing environmentally sustainable agriculture; protect natural resources against degradation or rehabilitate degraded resources like rivers [6]

In the poorest regions it is estimated that one in five children will not live to see the fifth birthday due to environment-related diseases [7]. Statistics show that almost four million children are dying each year because of acute respiratory infection linked to indoor and out-door air pollution [7]. Other environment-related diseases killing the children are diarrhoea caused by lack of clean water and sanitation and also cholera, malaria and asthma [7].

The better solution which can rescue both the environment and poor people is through the government by increasing the rate of job creation for poor people. If they have jobs they can afford higher quality life which includes affording electricity, they can also afford nice roofing materials instead of using grasses and they can have somewhere to wake up to instead of harvesting the natural resources everyday. Many of poor people are very skilled in a way that a government can build a huge art and craft and timber structures where these people can be employed and still practice their art but in a professional way where the harvesting of plants can be done sustainably.
The government can export these products to other countries where a lot of money can be generated.
Some can also work in guarding the natural environment from culprits. Others can be employed only for harvesting the natural resources for different purposes like medicinal, art and craft, timber, fire wood etc under the supervision of ecologists. This can help in keeping the poor people busy, they will be earning a stable and reliable salary which will keep them away from the natural resources, and after all it will be difficult to access the resources as a close eye will always be kept on them.

They also need to be educated and shown how important the environment is to both people and animals, though education can not always be a solution to all the people, few people can see natural resources in a different way just because of being educated. Though it can take a while to totally eradicate poverty, poor people can still use natural resources in a sustainable way which will still benefit them as well as the environment.

References

1. Walsh, T. 2005. Causes of Poverty. [Internet]. 2006 Jan 10, 09:21 UTC [cited 2007 Feb 26]. Available from: http://www.gdrc.org/icm/poverty-causes.htm

2. Anon. 2007. Definition of Poverty [Online]. 2007 Feb 23, 11:08 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 02]. Available from:
http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn%3Fs%3Dpoverty&usg=__W9VMjHxmt2dtS9Q6i1C3dXliaiI=

3. Anon. 2007. Definitions of Degradation [Online]. 2007 Feb 27, 11:08 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 02]. Available from:
http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn%3Fs%3Ddegradation&usg=__RSj8PvzweVIu--0uRZ9vz6ZcS00=

4. Anon. 2007. Definitions of Environmental Degradation [Online]. 2007 Feb 27, 11:14 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 02]. Available from:
http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/lib-terminology-eng%2520home.htm&usg=__Zeealh7Lo4Jb_w9QaoYxbfGIsB4=

5. Mennonite, 1990. Poverty and Environmental Degradation. [Internet]. 2007 Jan 10, 13:55 UTC [cited 2007 Feb 23]. Available from:
http://www.restoringeden.org/resources/denominationalstatements/Mennonite

6. Andersen, P.P. and Rajul, P. C. 1995. Poverty, food Secutity, and the Environment. [Internet]. 2007 Jan 12, 11:13 UTC [cited 2007 Feb 28]. Available from:
http://www.ifpri.org/2020/briefs/number29.htm

7. Wikipedia contributors. Ten Threats [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Jan 10, 15:17 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 1]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ten_Threats&oldid=99655921.

Dianah Nangammbi
Cilla CSIR
P.O Box 395
Pretoria
0001
Tel: +27 12 841 2133
Cell: +27 73 121 3589
Email: dnangammbi@csir.co.za
http://wwwdianah.blogspot.com/

Conservation Biology Assignments

2007-03-05T12:08:00.001+02:00

The Conservation Biology Course assignments will consist of:

Video Reviews:

The following video material will be made available for review (not to
examine):

Monsters we Meet (three videos)

The Real Eve and Man's Jorney

Attenborough's State of the pLanet

Diamond Guns, Germs and Steel

Practical Work (Kruger Field Trip) (30%)

Research proposals based on the Conservation Biology field trip to the Wits Rural Facility and the Kruger National Park have already been completed. These count 30% towards your final course mark.

Weblog Contributions(20%)

Contributions to the Conservation Biology weblog must include two articles consisting of not less than 500 words, and four contributions to other
contributions (i.e. useful and substantial comments). Articles must have a strong conservation focus, and deal with the role of humans in effecting ecological change. The comments are to address issues raised in the article in question, indicating an issue
overlooked or where there is an alternative explanation - comments are to be substantive in
concept rather than in the amount of words.

Further contributions to the weblog (more articles, comments, etc.) are welcome, and may be considered for purposes of extra credit.

Exam Quizzes (20%)

Exam quizzes will be based on the NISL Conservation Biology chapters. The quizzes will be made available upon completion of the other assignments.

Science Presentation (30%)

Review a research topic (at least three papers will be provided) and
the review is prepared as a Power Point - similar to the Invasion
Biology.

The research topics available are as follows:

Armageddon vs Extinction

Clovis Society and the North American Overkill

GMO - Safe for Society, Safe for the Environment?

mt-DNA - An African Origin for humans and how the world was invaded

Y-chromosome- An African Origin for humans and how the world was invaded

Neolithical Revolution - the first big impacts of humans on Ecosystems

New Zealand - The big impact that humans had on an Island Ecosystem

Romans - an ancient civilization's ecological footprint
Developing Ecological Networks for Conserving Europe's Biodiversity

Ecological Corridors and their use for Conservation Planning

A time table will be provided next week, as will a full list of suggested readings for the science presentations and copies of the video material to be reviewed. In the meantime, feel free to contact me via email for any further information.

ELEPHANT MANAGEMENT IN THE ADDO ELEPHANT NATIONAL PARK

2007-03-05T10:16:00.000+02:00

Culling is another method of controlling a population in wildlife management particularly on African Game Farms. The other method of managing the growing numbers of population is contraception and transportation but in this case I will only focus on the culling process. The term culling can be defined as the process of selection of surplus animals from an animal population. In the case of elephants or large animals in the African game farms, their orphaned young are easily captured and transported, are then relocated. This process (culling) is controversial in Africa; it was banned in 1995 in South Africa's Parks which has doubled to around 17,000 of an elephant population. The reintroduced of the practice has been recommended in recent years for use in some of South Africa's parks. There are many reasons for culling of animals for instead, culling can be introduced in order to control the group’s population for the benefit of the environment and other species, and the other reason is associate with the tax revenue that comes from hunting licenses than any actual ecological benefit.( 1)

The National Park in Eastern province (South Africa) has an area of 540 squares Km. The Southern Park of the Eastern province lies in the Sundays River valley south of the Suurberg Range, north of Port Elizabeth (2). This National Park was established as Addo Elephant National Park in 1931(3). Minister of South African Environmental Affairs and Tourism Mr. Marthinus van Schalkwyk on Wednesday (28 February 2007) stressed that a launching a set of draft regulation on elephant management in the Addo Elephant National Park would not “immediately lead to the wholesale slaughter of elephants anywhere”(4). A series of measures his department is considering to balance the following two things: the needs of human kind and of nature, therefore some measures such as culling and contraception he emphasized that he personally not to consider even though all these options have potential role to play under different circumstances. He further said that the higher elephant numbers risked destroying the biodiversity of South Africa’s parks even though there is no concrete proof of the damage elephants causes to biodiversity according to International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW). The South Africa’s elephant population is expected to double again to about 34,000 by 2020. The ecologist and conservationist stressed that culling is cruel since it involves killing entire family group.

The legislation- titled the draft norms and standards elephant management provided for population control of elephants by using range manipulation; removal by translocation; introduction of elephant contraception and culling. The South African government is allowing two months for environmental groups and conservationists to comment on the proposals. The minister also encouraged stakeholders to study them carefully and submit comment by 04 May 2007 to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (5). On the other hand the South Africa's National Parks (SANParks) have put the culling of elephant in the park on the agenda, Due to the large elephant population in National Parks, the SANParks have proposed the South African Government that the killing of elephants be resumed, because its size is affecting most of South African National Parks Biodiversity. The SANParks complained ten years ago that “anti-cull protestors did not have scientific evidence to back up their calls, which has been caught on the back foot” (6). Today the very same organization (SANParks) which, “in the opinion of IFAW and many eminent elephant biologists and other animal welfare groups, simply does not have the science to support its call for a cull. (6)

Most of South African National Parks attract millions of tourists a year and “many of whom are attracted by the opportunity to view large numbers of elephants in the natural habitat” (6). Indeed I will agree with Jason Bell Leask, International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW’s) Southern Africa Director when said that “culling is a cruel, unethical and a scientifically unsound practice that does not consider the welfare implications to elephant society as a whole” and he further said that the decision of Mr. Marthinus van Schalkwyk (EAT minister), “to allow a cull will send a disturbing message to the world about South Africa’s attitude towards wildlife management” (6). Therefore as a an ecological informatics students, I will certainly agree with the project of transporting elephants to less-populated areas and to use contraceptives unlike culling of elephants.

References:

1. Wikipedia contributors. Culling [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2007 Feb 27, 11:50 UTC [cited 2007 Mar 1]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culling

2. "Addo Elephant National Park." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1 Mar. 2007. Available from: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9003703/Addo-Elephant-National-Park

3. Unknown. Addo Elephant National Park. [Internet] Online Access 01 March 2007. Available from: http://www.go2africa.com/south-africa/eastern-cape/addo-elephant-national-park/

4. IOL. Elephant culling set to be renewed. [Internet] Online Access: 01 March 2007. Available from:
http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?art_id=nw20070228122112362C817237

5. News. S Africa considers elephant culls. [Internet] Online Access 02 March 2007. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6404587.stm

6. IFAW. Kruger National Park: Elephant Cull or Killing Fields? The Debate on Elephant Culling in South Africa. [Internet] Online Access: 01 March 2007. Available from: http://www.ifaw.org/ifaw/general/default.aspx?oid=155901

Ramapulana Nkoana

CSIR Pretoria

0001

Cell: +27 73 347 6551

Tell: +27 12 841 2133

Fax: +27 12 841 4405

Email: pnkoana@csir.co.za

: puli.nkoana@gmail.com

My blogger URL: http://pnkoana.blogspot.com/

ELEPHANTS AT KRUGER NATION PARK (KNP)

2007-03-01T14:25:00.000+02:00

I visited KNP on the first and second of February 2007. I was with my group (Ecological informatics learnership students Pretoria CSIR), Nicklaus Kruger from University of the Western Cape (UWC), Laurie Barwell from Pretoria CSIR and Avinash, from
South African Environmental Network (SAEON).The main objective of the trip was to observe different type of animals found in KNP.

The KNP is the biggest game reserves in Africa, covering an area of 18,989 km² extending 350 km north to south and 60 km east to west (1). The KNP lies in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces; the Northernmost part of KNP is Zimbabwe and Mozambique on the East (1). The KNP is famous as African big five animals. The big five includes elephant, rhino, hippopotamus, leopard and buffalo (3).

The elephant belongs to the family of pachyderm under the order Proboscidea and class Mammalia. Elephants can live approximately 70 years. Elephants can reach the weight of above 7 tons

There are many elephants found in KNP. Elephants destroy vegetation in the Kruger National Park (KNP). Elephant need a lot of food - they can consume 200 kg of plant matter per day. Elephants exploit trees and shrubs of the park as they uprooted trees using its trunk Which lead to decrease in the number of trees. Elephants strip off the bark of the trees which result in the death of the trees because trees can not transport water and other nutrients to the leaves and stems. Elephants can change the tropical forest to be savannah forest. Elephants browse when grass production is low during dry seasons. As a result the elephant destroy biodiversity of KNP as they consumed large amount of plants (2).

I was told that, Elephants grow faster. Currently they lead to changes to vegetation of the park. I thought when the space is small for Elephants in KNP; elephant will become dangerous to other animals and tourist by attacking them. “I believe that”, after 10 years KNP will be unable to accommodate all the elephants found in the park.

Dr. Holger Eckhardt from KNP indicated that, Marula trees are rare because of elephants. Elephants are big and can disable electric fences, as they can break the boundary fence of the park and this will allows other big animals like buffalos to leave the park

An elephant specialist of KNP, Dr. Ian Whyte, told us that, there is no one who wants to kill elephants but they have the responsibility to balance the ecosystem.The management of KNP said that, their obligation is to manage and conserve biodiversity of KNP. They said that they will use elephant culling methods to minimize the number of elephant as they have conservation management that deal with it.

The department of Environmental affairs and tourism needs to balance the ecosystem and protect the park. There is also a need for the management to manage and protect the tourist industry and the community who live near the park. When we talk about conservation we need to focus on balance between plants and animals. 6The methods of selling elephants to other countries can work rather than killing them. The KNP face the problem of elephant if they do not come with the strong mitigation startegies to control elephant

1. Anonymous. 2007. Kruger National Park. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 7]. Available from: http://www.iglusouthafrica.com/destination.cfm?destinationcode=KR

2. Anonymous. 2007. A Numbers Game: Managing Elephants in Southern Africa. [Online]. [Cited, 23 February 2007]. Availab;e from: http://www.nomadtours.co.za/article_2006-8-19_9.html

3. Husted. L. 2006. Elephant cull threatens tourism in Kruger[Online]. [Cited, 22 February 2007]. Available from: http://www.ecoafrica.com/news/elephant-cull.htm

Linette Netshiheni
CSIR
Pretoria
0001
Tell: 012 841 2133
Fax: 012 842 3676
tnetshiheni@csir.co.za
Weblog: http://tnetshiheni-linette.blogspot.com/

KOALA FROM AUSTRALIA GIVE BIRTH IN AFRICA

2007-03-01T10:41:00.000+02:00

I never knew that there was a Joey (baby koala) which was born in Africa until I visited Pretoria Zoo in Gauteng Province. The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) which is found in Pretoria Zoo is the only koala which was born in Africa. The breeding program of Phascolarctos cinereus population was implemented in November 2005 by the National Zoological Garden of South Africa ⁽¹⁾. The koala was born on the 4^thof January 2006 ⁽²⁾. It took twenty to thirty days for a baby koala to be born ⁽³⁾. The koala babies weighed about 5g at birth. The koala was named Willie after the former Director of the Zoo Wille Labuschagne ⁽¹⁾.

On first glance, it appears that Phascolarctos cinereus is closely related to a bearbecause it looks like a teddy bear, hence it is sometimes called koala bear. Koala is closely related with kangaroo and opossum ⁽³⁾. Koala is also distant cousin of wombats ⁽⁴⁾. Actually, koalas are related to bears, just more distantly than they are to kangaroos and wombats.

Willie the koala stayed in its mother’s pouch for approximately seven months and fed on milk of its mother ⁽¹⁾. The pouch of Phascolarctos cinereus is distinctive comparing to other tree dwindling placental mammals; it opens at the rear ⁽⁴⁾. Phascolarctos cinereus begins to cling on the back of its mother at about six months until it is about twelve months old ⁽⁴⁾.

Phascolarctos cinereus feed and sleep on Eucalyptus leaves. The koala in Pretoria zoo consumes eight different types of Eucalyptus ⁽¹⁾. Eucalyptus leaves have a high water content which quenches the koala’s thirst. Phascolarctos cinereus does not usually drink water; however, it drinks during drought season. Eucalyptus leaves are rich in fibre and poor in protein. They also contain little energy as a result; Phascolarctos cinereus conserves energy by sleeping during the day and moving very slowly ^(5). Phascolarctos cinereus that is found at Pretoria Zoo sleep about twenty hours ⁽¹⁾. Phascolarctos cinereus is nocturnal species ⁽⁴⁾.

The recent studies show that there are fewer koalas in the wild comparing to the previous years in their home environment (Australia)⁽⁶⁾. Humans are known to be the biggest threat to koalas. Koala habitats are fragmented due to urban development, roads and agriculture and results to changes population dynamics ⁽⁷⁾.

Since European settlement in the early 1800s ⁽⁶⁾, around 80% of eucalyptus forests (the natural habitat for koalas) have been destroyed ⁽⁷⁾.The bushfires and drought regularly occurs eucalypts forest of Australia and these increase strain to the population of Phascolarctos cinereus. More than 4000 koalasare killed annually by cars or dogs ⁽⁷⁾. Koalas were killed by cars when they are searching for new territories ⁽⁶⁾. Koalas were hunted in the late 1920s for their fur. More than two million koala skins were exported United States and Europe ⁽⁶⁾. Koala were about to go extinct in Australia due to being hunted. Koalas are preyed upon by wedge-tailed eagles, goannas dingoes and pythons. The koalas are also threatened by feral animals such as cats and foxes ⁽⁷⁾.

Koalas are protected by Endanger Species Act’s Protection law in their Australia⁽⁶⁾. The law was effective on the 8^th of June 2000 throughout Australia ⁽⁸⁾. The koalas were listed endangered because they were threatened in the Queensland. Koalas are no longer exploited for their fur ⁽⁶⁾.

Koalas of Australia are mostly conserved because they may go extinct. The area such as Pretoria Zoo is also playing an important in conservation of koala. Koalas were threatened in their home environment. Koalas are currently protected by law. At long last, koala is born in Africa.

References

1. Oelofse L. Pretoria zoo welcomes first born in Africa. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from:
http://www.mg.co.za/articledirect.aspx

2. Bulletin Biltong. 2006. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from:
www.comehome.co.za/newsletters/Biltong%2520Bulletin%2520E%25202006%252008.

3. The Endangered Koalas. [ Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from:

http://library.thinkquest.org/6322/

4. Lawsen S. Koala Bears. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from:
http://www.crystalinks.com/koala.html

5. Koala. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from:

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554280/Koala.html

6. Nina B.2001. Koala Bear. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from: http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/koala_bear.htm

7.Anonymous. Koala. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from: http://home.swiftdsl.com.au/~endangered/koala.htm

8. Clark J.P. Rules and Regulations. [Online]. [Cited 2007 February 22] Available from:http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:GaO02cTft54J:www.fws.gov/international/pdf

Masiya Kedibone
CSIR Pretoria
NISL- Ecological Informatics
P.O. Box 395
Pretoria
0001
kmasiya@csir.co.za
http://kedibone-kedimasiya.blogspot.com

2007-02-28T15:40:00.000+02:00

Conservational Concern Over Exploitation of Indigenous Plants for Medicinal Purposes in KwaZulu Natal South Africa.

South Africa’s indigenous plants are facing threat of extinction due to medicinal harvest. The Researched done by Institute of Natural Resource indicate that the medicinal trade has been increased. [1] The harvests of indigenous plants have raised much concern from the conservation perspective. This is because commercial gathers target most of the rare indigenous species. The purpose of this article is to address the threats that are rising from the use of indigenous plants for medicinal purpose without conserving it.

There is a cultural belief held by African culture that certain diseases and divines can be found or healed by using indigenous plants. For this reason, traditional healers are held in high esteem in African cultures and are regularly consulted by a large portion of the population. [1] The traditional healers help to specify the plant that can be used for treatment. The concern of over exploitation has risen because nowadays, people are turning medicinal harvest into commercial. They harvest plant roots, barks, and bulb to make profit by selling them in the street market and to the traditional healers. [1][3]

In the early ages, conservation of medicinal plants was achieved by various customary practises, such as religious belief, taboos, social restriction, and season of harvesting[1]
The early conservation practise monitor the harvest of indigenous plants for medicinal purpose by allowing plants gather to collect what they need not more than they need. This is to ensure that the plants can have ability to regenerate. The conservation practise also monitors the tools that plants gathers use to remove bulbs and roots; this was done to prevent distraction of plant growth and over exploitation. However, nowadays plants gather, they no longer follow the conservation method, which was used in the early age. They have moved from conserving to profit making. [1]

Overexploitation of indigenous plant for medicinal purpose has been a topic in most part of South Africa. The Institute of Natural Resource has done research about the trade of medicinal plant, in KwaZulu Natal. It has estimated to about R62 million per annum, “which is nearly equally to the one third of maize harvest”. [1] The demand for indigenous plant for medicine is still rising. This is because people demand medicine from indigenous plants than primary health care treatment. [1]

The exploitation of the indigenous plants occurs when the plant gathers chop, strip barks, and dig roots of the plants. This exploitation also occurs as competition from gatherers, who remove the parts they want before others. Due to this competition, they extract the plant without conserving it for the future. [1]

This overexploitation of indigenous plant for medicinal purpose has social and ecological impact, on our biodiversity. From social perspective, people tend to lose some indigenous plants for medicine harvest, due to overexploitation. In this case, some diseases are no longer cured because of the shortage of medicinal plants. In ecological perspective, plants are green glue that bind soil and keep animals alive in the biodiversity. [1]

Plants that are facing threat of overexploitation in KwaZulu Natal are Bowia volubilis (climbing onion); Eucomis autumnalis (pineapple flower) and Ocotea bullata (stinkwood tree) [1].These are the plant species, which plant gathers trade annually in KwaZulu Natal. In KZN, most of the medicines are traded in the informal street. [1]

This utilization of indigenous plant for medicinal purpose has raised much concern in conservations perspective. These over utilisation need to be addressed and monitored, so that the plants that are present can be conserved and sustained. However, cultural belief on the use of medicine from indigenous plants will also need to be considered.

In order to control the harvest of indigenous plants for medicine Traditional healers need to obtain permit for extracting indigenous plants. This can serve as management tool to guide people through conservation. The permit will also give authorisation of selling the medicine in the street. This will mean that only authorised people can sell, to reduce plant gathers who overexploit the medicinal plants for profit.

Policies to monitor and regulate the non-sustainable harvesting need to set for both public and private land. This will not only conserve indigenous species and environment it will also save human life, due to shortage of medicine when the species face threat of extinction. [2] “If they are not protected from overharvest, human health may suffer as medicinal species disappear”.2

Over exploitation of indigenous plants for medicine, need to be addressed to the plant gathers and traditional healers, so that conservation can be achieved. It may also be important to sustain this indigenous plants medicine, some researcher can find cure for HIV-AIDS out of it. This may be a call to the Conservationist and the traditional healers to work hand in hand to protect and conserve our indigenous plants and biodiversity.

Reference:
1. Steve McKean .The Medicinal Plant Trade in KwaZulu-Natal
Conservation Concerns and Actions: [internet] cited 2007 February 26. Available from: http://www.kznwildlife.com/flora_medicinal.htm

2. Westfall R.E and Glickman W. B. Conservation of indigenous medicinal plants in Canada [internet] cited 2007 February 26. Available from http://www.speciesatrisk2004.ca/pdf/westfall_edited_final_feb_28.pdf

3. Mahonge C.P.I, Nsenga J.V. Mtengeti E.J, and Mattee .A.Z. (2006) Utilization of Medicinal Plants by Waluguru People in East Uluguru Mountains Tanzania African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 121-134 [internet] cited 2007 February 26. Available from: http://www.bioline.org.br/abstract?id=tc06058&lang=en

Mr Elelwani Muanalo
CSIR Pretoria
P.O. Box 395
Pretoria,
0001
Tel: +27 12 841 2133
cell: +27 82 573 8678
email: emuanalo@csir.co.za
blogger url: http://muanalo.blogspot.com

"The best way to predict the future is to invent it"

CONDITION OF RANGELANDS IN SOUTH AFRICA

2007-02-28T15:19:00.000+02:00

A Rangeland is an area of natural land or vegetation which is used for grazing and browsing animals. Rangelands are usually covered by native grasses, but they can consist of introduced species that can be managed similarly to native ones. [1]

Rangelands are among the land uses which are facing severe land degradation. Overstocking, inadequate stock watering point and fire suppression are causing a decrease in palatable grass species which are then replaced by less palatable trees and woody shrubs. Overstocking i.e. (placing of large number of animals on piece of land exceeding the carrying capacity of that area) is a serious problem which leads to over-utilisation of grasses and never regenerate. [2]

Inadequate number of watering point is another major problem behind rangeland degradation. Most rangelands within South Africa, for example Karoo and Savanna are too dry as a result of climate and therefore there is a need to support adequate water. If rangeland is found to have few number of watering point this simple mean that all animals have to concentrate on those few watering point. These concentrations by animals result to degradation of vegetation and soil resulting from trampling effect. [2]

Uncontrolled and frequent fires. Most of the fires in rangelands are not properly controlled, As a result of frequent fires; rangelands do not have time to recover from the effect of previous fire event. Most of these fires burn uncontrollable, at wrong season or inappropriate weather condition. Most palatable grasses are unable to regenerate thereby replaced by thorny scrub bush which are not palatable. [2]

Encroachment of development projects. These arise from increase in population and economic development. The result is a need for land to be used in infrastructural development i.e. settlement, public utilities, roads and others. Because of their proliferation, they are reducing the size of rangelands. Pollution from development project causes deterioration in the condition of rangelands. [2]

The consideration for sustainable rangeland management is a possible way to make efficient use of range resources while conserving and improving such range resources. To achieve this include the following measures: Land capability class, this involves to classify land and put it as rangeland if fall on suitable class. When classifying the land, it can be found that land is suitable for forestry, wild life, cultivation or grazing. Actual stocking rate, this is to determine the actual number of livestock that could be sustainably kept on a unit area. It will ensure that rangeland not stressed. Biomass level, nutrition value, palatability and seasonality will determine the number of livestock. [3]

Provision of sufficient and properly distribution of water can be another way of solving the problem. Animals prefer to graze where there is water; therefore watering point should be evenly distributed to the entire rangeland. Rangeland restoration and rehabilitation is another way to repair the damage posed to the rangeland. The aim here is to allow each range land to recover its good conditions. [3]

Paddocking can be the best way for range land management. This means dividing the land into cells or camps which can be fenced either by wires or other fencing materials. Each paddock will be then opened for animals at a particular point and closed at specified period. This will allow rotational burning without affecting entire rangeland and rotational grazing. [3]

In many South African rangelands, interventions need to be done. Researcher into rangelands management in South Africa must continue in order to deepen our understanding of this issue. This of course will help to develop appropriate solutions

Reference:

1. Wikipedia contributors. Rangeland [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Dec 24, 03:43 UTC [cited 2007 Feb 27].
Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangeland&oldid=96215262.

2. Hudak A.T. (1999) Rangeland Mismanagement in South Africa: Failure to Apply Ecological Knowledge. Human Ecology, volume 27, pp. 55-78(24)
[Internet] Available from: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?title=BUSH+ENCROACHMENT&title_type=tka&year_from=1998&year_to=2007&database=1&pageSize=20&index=41

3. Palmer .T and Ainslie .A. Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles [Internet] [Cited 2007 Feb 27] Available from:
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/southafrica/southafrica.htm

Mr Lufuno Mukwevho
CSIR Pretoria
P.O. Box 395Pretoria
0001
Tel: (012) 841 2133
Fax: 012 842 7024
Cell: 0723175626
E-mail: lmukwevho@csir.co.za

Conservation biology and evolutionary potential

2007-02-20T13:33:00.000+02:00

John Wilkins over at Evolving Thoughts has an interesting post up discussing this paper in Nature.

The summary article has this to say:

When seeking to preserve biodiversity, simply trying to count and protect every species may not be enough. A new study suggests that conservationists should also consider the extent to which the mix of species in an area has the genetic potential to adapt to change.
In the past, many scientists assumed that the number of species in a region reflects that area's potential for evolutionary change. That potential is expressed in terms of "phylogenetic diversity"--a measure of how distantly related those species are. The higher the species number, the prevailing theory went, the higher the phylogenetic diversity, and the easier it would be for the area as a whole to adapt to global change.

When Félix Forest, Richard Grenyer, and colleagues at the Jodrell Laboratory of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, U.K., and other research centers examined plant life in two biodiversity hot spots in South Africa's Cape region, however, they found that species number and phylogenetic diversity don't always go hand in hand. Analyzing sequence data from a gene present in 735 plant genera, the researchers found that while the western Cape had more plant species, the eastern Cape's flora had higher phylogenetic diversity. That diversity, in turn, had produced more plants with traits useful for food or medicine. The team presents its findings 15 February in Nature.

My take on it, in brief: Evolution - and indeed, all forms of ecosystem change - is a factor that is often ignored in conservation biology. Biodiversity must be more than a mere count of the number of species in an area, not only because species are themselves ill-defined entities, but also because speciation and extinction is a natural part of evolution. If phylogenetic diversity measures aid in this regard, then I am all for them.

Anyway, it's a really interesting paper (done in our own backyard!), and a really interesting discussion. Do yourself a favour and have a look.

DUTHIE RESERVE, STELLENBOSCH

2006-09-20T21:24:00.000+02:00

I have been a volunteer for a program called CREW (Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers) for more than three years. This program involves civil society to help monitor and conserve rare and threatened plants. On Saturday the 16th of September, the Friends of the Tygerberg Hills CREW group went out to Duthie Reserve in Stellenbosch to search for a really threatened plant species in the Amaryllidaceae family, namely Haemanthus pumilio. These plants had last been counted in 1986, when more than a thousand plants were recorded. The reserve had been burnt in 2004 but no post fire survey had been done as far as we know. So, we set out last Saturday on a somewhat rainy day to go and see what we could find…

Duthie Reserve, belongs to the University of Stellenbosch. It is a National Heritage Site, with unique vegetation as it is a transitional zone between Boland Granite Fynbos and Swartland Shale Renosterveld. The area is seasonally waterlogged (and it was just as well most of us were wearing our gum boots!).

A few years ago several new University residences were built on part of the reserve and from what I could gather from a hand drawn map dating back to 1986, the plots where most of the threatened plants were found then was very close to where the fence now is, separating the remainder of the reserve from the residences.

What did we find? Firstly, the reserve is completely grass dominated and from the road that is all one can see. I am however useless in identifying grasses and I thus do not know if the majority of the grass cover is in fact indigenous, but I assume it is as I could only identify one alien grass species, namely Briza maxima. Once inside the reserve, we saw many bulbs, but since it was such an overcast day, just about nothing had open flowers. Some of the species we did identify were Baeometra uniflora (beetle lily), Chlorophytum undulatum (grass lily), Trachyandra filiformis, Lachenalia unifolia, Spiloxene capensis (peacock flower), Spiloxene aquatica and Drosera cistiflora (sundew).
There were also two different species of Babiana, at least one species of Sparaxis, Geissorhiza, Hesperantha and Romulae and Monsonia speciosa (sambreeltjie) was in full flower.

We did also find our “special” and counted some 300 + plants. The area close to the fence, where the majority were counted before however seemed quite disturbed and we found very few of our special plants there. But at least they are still there and we will definitely go back in summer to see them in full bloom and do another count… 300 is a long shot from over a 1000 and we hope that with the long grass, we just missed many a plant!

An article in the Veld and Flora (1992) on this species then already noted that the Duthie population was probably the only viable population still left, but that it had a sure future in the reserve. How certain that future however is will hopefully not be determined by the further need for residences or other buildings! Any further reduction in habitat might just push this species over the brink...

Karen Marais
BCB Hons NISL student
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville

E-mail 2657211@uwc.ac.za

NEW LIFE SCIENCE BUILDING

2006-09-05T21:43:00.002+02:00

Hi Everyone

I attended a meeting which presented to the staff the concepts behind the new Life Sciences building. Much of this presentation was about building efficiency and flexibility of design. The issue that the new building is of an International design of glass and wavy roof at least conceptually and operationally has been inspired by buildings at the University of Queensland. The building is intentionally very modern, and for Middle East Airports and Conference Centres they look great, but personally I think clasical and individual designs are more suitable for Universities. When I visited Germany and the quaint gothic town of Marburg I was appalled that their University could build such a hideous edifice of glass. I am not saying that this building is hideous, it mostly certainly is not, but whether people will really take notice of another airport-like building along M10, I really doubt. The BCB department will occupy the first floor and the roof above the computer labs will be where the plants can be kept on the roof. We have already lost one major computer server through a roof leak - this does not sound very practical to me.

I raised the issue about the need for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as per the new regulations. I was assurred the university have passed the documents concerning the new EIA to our law faculty for guidance. Exactly what does this mean? Is UWC looking for a loophole to avoid having to undertake an IEM, I really do not know? For UWC to gain respect nationally and internationally, it needs to be a socially responsible institution, promoting democracy, and to have concerns for people and the environment while maintaining high educational standards. The quality of the university is the quality of its staff, the quality of the students it produces, its engagement with society, rather than having modern buildings of glass.

For the rest of this posting I will indicate exactly why this site is so sensitive. I got Dr Pat Holmes from the City of Cape Town to check this out.

1) The Cape Town Environs have the highest species extinction rates in the world due to loss of natural habitat.

2) The Cape Town Lowlands (including the Cape Flats) have high species richness, uniqueness and as you move across the landscape a high turnover of species. The world's total population of species can literally be contained with a few hectares.

3) The closest similar Cape Flats Sandplain Fynbos vegetation has been lost over the last few years (e.g. Century City) and this has increased the relative conservation value of this particular remnant.

4) The vegetation removed to make way for this building was classified by CCT Biodiversity Strategy as Cape Flats Sandplain Fynbos - of which there is very little left in good condition and only 1% is conserved, well under the 10% required under IUCN and Convention on Biodiversity to which South Africa is a signatory. There is to little tyo meet conservation targets and is defined as irreplaceable.

5) The Sandplain Fynbos vegetation types are the second most critically endangered vegetation type group within the world famous Cape Floral Region - an area that has biodiversity packing that is about the highest in the world.

6) Sandplain Fynbos vegetation types occurs on an acidic, low nutrient substrate, making it sensitive to any nutrient runoff and to any construction employing concrete (it will make it alkaline).

7) The Cape Flats vegetation on UWC Campus was identified as far back as 1987 as one of the top ten most important floral sites for conservation in a study undertaken by the Botanical Society.

8) The site represents a gradient from Coastal (Dune) Thicket to Sandplain Fynbos (referred to as an Ecotone) making it one of only two remnants of natural vegetation left in Cape Town.

9) The conservation plight of the Cape Lowlands has achieved huge global coverage (e.g. David Attenborough in his documentaries on the State of the Planet - used the Cape Lowland Fynbos to illustrate species extinction through loss of habitat.

10) Sandplain Fynbos vegetation is virtually impossible to re-establish as a functional ecosystem since it has a number of edaphic and other conditions (e.g. microrhiza) that makes it impossible to simply transplant adult plants. Harvesting of seed and storing of the top soil are the best methods for re-establishing this type of vegetation after a disturbance - but if the soil nutrient levels are elevated or the pH changed it will be more difficult to restore the ecosystem functionality.

11) The proposed site is very natural and remarkably free of alien grass species, which are usually one of the first signs of increased nutrient and human-disturbance in Sandplain Fynbos.

I have prepared a map showing in Red the sensitive areas, and in Green areas that have little or no ecological value, there is quite a bit of it. If a developer proceeds with developing a sensitive site as identified under the EIA regulations of NEMA the penalties are not particularly high, BUT the court could stop the development and instruct the site to be restored, and that would be expensive. Undertaking an EIA will incur delays in the construction of the building, but realistically, were the University to go the EIA route, there is every chance that the new Life Science Building will be given the green light if the footprint is kept fairly small (the latest plans put it at about 1ha) but a biodiversity offset may be required (probably a financial cost in the region of R1-5 million) to secure another area with similar biodiversity status. What is not in UWC’s favour is the amount of available land that is not ecologically sensitive and that it built the School of Government on another part of sensitive Cape Flats Sandplain Fynbos in the last five years.

EVERYONE LOVES MONSANTO

2006-08-31T17:26:00.000+02:00

The Monsanto company was established at the turn of the last century by John Francis Queeny [1]. If we look at the company today it employs 45 000 people, operates globally and for 2004 reported revenues of US$5.4 billion [1]. It is the world’s biggest producer of glyphosate, a herbicide better known under the trade name Roundup and Genetically Modified (GM) products for the agricultural industry and has a global market share of 70%–100% for various GM crops [1]. As stated by Karen in her posting, Monsanto in a stroke of pure genius developed Roundup Ready crops. In doing this Monsanto engineered crops to be resistant to its herbicide so it could be applied to remove all troublesome weeds that usually are a problem in food production. In 1995 Monsanto purchased Seminis Inc to become the largest conventional seed company in the world [1]. Monsanto is coy about how many patents it holds, but the number is large – estimated at about 11 000. Its generosity in funding for tertiary institutions research in biotechnology is well known; it has has spearheaded science for and its chemists have included Nobel Prize Winner William S. Knowles [1]. Funding of the sciences is balanced with respect for the social environment with huge sponsorships to the arts and culture (Disneyland and Walt Disney World) [1]. This philanthropic and altruistic corporation stands tall in our Global Village. For many of us, our everyday food items are produced through Monsanto’s dedication and research, and recently they even applied to the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) in Geneva for a patent for securing pig production globally (WO 2005/017204) to help us enjoy even more bacon. Monsanto’s mission is to provide all people of the world with “better food, better nutrition, and better health”.

THE MONSANTO PLEDGE IS:

INTEGRITY is the foundation for all that we do. Integrity includes honesty, decency, consistency, and courage. Building on those values, we are committed to:

DIALOGUE We will listen carefully to diverse points of view and engage in thoughtful dialogue. We will broaden our understanding of issues in order to better address the needs and concerns of society and each other.

TRANSPARENCY We will ensure that information is available, accessible, and understandable.

SHARING We will share knowledge and technology to advance scientific understanding, to improve agriculture and the environment, to improve crops, and to help farmers in developing countries.

BENEFITS We will use sound and innovative science and thoughtful and effective stewardship to deliver high-quality products that are beneficial to our customers and to the environment.

RESPECT We will respect the religious, cultural, and ethical concerns of people throughout the world. The safety of our employees, the communities where we operate, our customers, consumers, and the environment will be our highest priority.

ACTING AS OWNERS TO ACHIEVE RESULTS We will create clarity of direction, roles, and accountability; build strong relationships with our customers and external partners; make wise decisions; steward our company resources; and take responsibility for achieving agreed-upon results.

CREATE A GREAT PLACE TO WORK We will ensure diversity of people and thought; foster innovation, creativity and learning; practice inclusive teamwork; and reward and recognize our people.

MONSANTO’S ABRIDGED CURRICULUM VITAE

1900’s - Monsanto’s first product, saccharin, was sold to the Coca-Cola Company[1].

1917 – US government filed a law suit against Monsanto over the safety of saccharin[1].

1919 - Monsanto produce vanillin, salicylic acid, aspirin and rubber [1].

1920s - Monsanto expanded into industrial chemicals like the production of sulphuric acid [1].

1940s, Monsanto became a leading manufacturer of plastics, including polystyrene, and synthetic fibers. Monsanto operated the Oak Ridge National Laboratory for the Manhattan Project leading to the development of the first nuclear weapons [1].

1947 - Monsanto was responsible for USA’s largest industrial explosion while loading ammonium nitrate fertilizer onto the French ship S.S. Grandcamp – this is referred to as the “Texas City Disaster in Galveston Bay” which officially claimed 581 human deaths and 5000 injuries [2].

1960s and 1970s - Monsanto is the largest supplier to the US Military of “Agent Orange” for its operations in Vietnam [1].

1980s - Vietnam veterans filed law suits over the side effects of Agent Orange which include increased incidents of chloracne (soft tissue sarcomas), Hodgkin's disease, respiratory cancers, prostate cancer, multiple myeloma, Porphyria cutanea tarda (a type of skin disease), acute and subacute transient peripheral neuropathy, spina bifida, Type 2 diabetes, and acute myelogenous leukemia (found only in the second or third generations) [3]. The veterans received compensation to a value of $180 million [1].

1982 - Monsanto scientists become the first to genetically modify a plant cell [1].

1984 - Australian, Canadian and New Zealand war veterans obtained an out of court compensation from Monsanto [1].

1987 - Monsanto conducted the first field tests of genetically engineered crops [1].

1990s, - Monsanto sued some 150 US farmers for patent infringement in connection with its GE seed and based this on violation of its technology which prohibits farmers from saving seed from one season's crop to plant in the next season. One farmer received an eight-month prison sentence through Monsanto’s action [1].

1997 - Fox News succumbed to pressure from Monsanto to suppress their investigative report on the health risks associated with Monsanto's bovine growth hormone product, a synthetic drug used to increase milk production that is banned in most countries (except USA and South Africa where it is commonly used). Fox journalists Steve Wilson and his partner Jane Akre [4], were requested to withdraw their reports despite Monsanto having lied about the risks of contaminated milk and infected cattle[1]. Fox fired these two journalists.

1999 - 20,000 South Koreans filed a lawsuit against Monsanto and Dow on the Agent Orange use [1].

2000 - The company GLC sued Monsanto for the $71 million dollars due to a shortfall in expected sales [1].

2002 –Citizens of Anniston, Alabama received US$700 million in damages for environmental pollution since the 1970s by Monsanto's PCB production. Monsanto was found guilty of “negligence, wantonness, suppression of truth, nuisance, trespass, and outrage” under Alabama law. The court accused Monsanto of “conduct so outrageous in character and extreme in degree as to go beyond all possible bounds of decency so as to be regarded as atrocious and intolerable in civilized society” [1]

2002 – Monsanto’s PR firm Bivings Group admitted under pressure of BBC's news and current affairs programme Newsnight, to conducting Internet-based smears on scientists and critics of the biotech industry [5].

2003 - Monsanto sued Oakhurst Dairy in Maine for advertising that its milk products did not come from cows treated with bovine growth hormone, claiming that such advertising hurt its business [1].

2004 - French company RAGT Genetique withdrew it rights to a conventionally-bred strain of easily milled wheat called Galatea that it had purchased from Monsanto in May 2004. In this action RAGT Genetique essentially recognized that Galatea is derived from (rather than a cross-bred from) the wheat strain Nap Hal developed over centuries by Indian farmers [1].

2004 - Syngenta (the world's largest agrichemical company) launched a US lawsuit charging Monsanto with using coercive tactics to monopolize markets in food production [1].

2006 - Korean Appeal Court ordered Monsanto and Dow to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 victims of Agent Orange. Too date no Vietnamese has obtained compensation from Monsanto despite second and third generation genetic disorders following the deployment of Agent Orange during the war [1].

2006 - Monsanto was found guilty for bribing an Indonesian official and agreed to paying $1.5m in fines for its transgression. Monsanto has agreed to pay an additional $1m to the Department of Justice, for failing to adopt internal compliance measures and to co-operate with continuing civil and criminal investigations of its business practice. It is also paying a further $500,000 to US Department of Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to settle other bribe charges and related violations[6].

References (rather incomplete)

[1] Wikipedia contributors. Monsanto [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 26, 13:24 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 31]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monsanto&oldid=71998288.

[2] Wikipedia contributors. Texas City Disaster [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 28, 22:05 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 31]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Texas_City_Disaster&oldid=66425456.

[3] Wikipedia contributors. Agent Orange [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 30, 22:14 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 31]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agent_Orange&oldid=72907216.

[4] Wikipedia contributors. Steve Wilson (broadcaster) [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 27, 04:44 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 31]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve_Wilson_%28broadcaster%29&oldid=72132017.

[5] Ethical Investing Monsanto Stock Investment News [Internet]. Monsanto's PR firm admits involvement in e-mail campaign to discredit scientists [cited 2006 Aug 31]. Available from: http://www.ethicalinvesting.com/monsanto/news/10076.htm

[6] BBC News in video and audio [Internet]. Monsanto fined $1.5m for bribery; 2005 January 07:06 GMT [cited 2006 Aug 31]. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4153635.stm

WHAT TO KNOW MORE ABOUT MONSANTO?

http://www.monsanto.com/

http://www.monsanto.com/monsanto/content/careers/TechnicalBook.pdf (Monsanto and Careers)

http://www.monsanto.co.za/en/layout/resources/news/general/2006/08-02-06.asp (Monsanto - South African News)

http://www.monsanto.co.za/en/layout/resources/news/general/2006/01-20-06.asp (Monsanto - South African News)

http://www.monsanto.co.za/en/layout/about_us/default.asp (Monsanto - South African News)

http://www.greenmatters.com/gm/subscribers/activism/monsantoplist.html (list of Monsanto's Products)

http://www.nasulgc.org/publications/crpge/luncheon.html (Monsanto's University Research)

http://www.ethicalinvesting.com/monsanto/news/ (Monsanto - World's Most Unethical and Harmful Investment)

http://www.thecampaign.org/canada/monsantofiles.php#dioxins (Monsanto - Fact Files)

http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Monsanto (Monsanto - Source Watch)

http://members.aye.net/~hippie/monsanto.htm (Monsanto Corporation - one stop shop)

http://www.geocities.com/Northstarzone/MONSANTO.html (The Dark Side of Monsanto)

http://www.rense.com/politics4/monsant.htm (Monsanto strategy to gain control of Water rights)

Image Credit

http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/april-fools

http://www.geocities.com/Northstarzone/MONSANTO.html

NEVER HAD GM FOOD?

2006-08-31T00:28:00.000+02:00

If you think you have never eaten GM food, you are probably in for a surprise. While searching for articles on GMO’s I came across a recent South African article. According to Viljoen et al. (2006) South Africa is currently the only country in Africa commercially growing GM crops. We have no legislation on labelling GM products in our country, however many product do carry labels like “GMO free”, “non GMO” or “may be genetically modified” on local and foreign products.

What did they find? From the 58 randomly sampled maize and soy products, 44 tested positive for traces of GMO’s. Of the 20 products that did carry GM related labels, 14 tested positive. If you are a vegetarian and make use of soya products, chances are more than great that they are genetically modified… 77% of labelled soya products tested positive. If you are concerned about GMO products and want to learn more, I can send you the article via e-mail. You’ll be surprised how many brands you’ll recognize!

Reference:

Viljoen CD, Dajee BK and Botha GM. 2006. Detection of GMO in food products in South Africa: Implications of GMO labelling. African Journal of Biotechnology 5(2):73-82.

Karen Marais
BCB Hons NISL student
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville

E-mail 2657211@uwc.ac.za

Web http://brit-journal.com/karen2006bcbnisl/

GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS: IS THERE REASON FOR CONCERN?

2006-08-30T23:44:00.000+02:00

I was given the subject “genetically modified organisms” (GMO) and how that links with conservation biology. I started off by watching “The Future of Food”, a film by Deborah Koons Garcia, third wife and widow of legendary Grateful Dead lead singer/guitarist Jerry Garcia. This movie certainly wants to bring home the message that there is something sinister behind the whole GM food saga. There are clear villains and heroes in this movie and it sure succeeds in getting your blood pressure up, if you are easily impressionable like me! Besides probably being somewhat one-sided the movie does give the laymen a quick guide through the history of agriculture from the advent of agriculture some 12 000 years ago, through to the green revolution that started with the introduction of fertilizers and insecticides and then eventually by the mid 1990’s the green revolution turning into the gene revolution, when gene splicing made its appearance. Some insights are also given into the whole biotechnology industry and how genes are actually inserted into a cell.

The movie goes on about the health risks of GM foods and the fact that labelling GM products is not required in the USA. This does not allow consumers a choice. Unlike medical biotechnology which takes place in secure laboratories, agriculrural biotechnology produce seeds that can reproduce and once they are put into the environment cannot be controlled. Another worrying trend that is highlighted is the consolidation of food markets and even more worrisome, how big corporations that have links with GMO products have in some way or another “infiltrated” the very government agencies that are responsible for the safety of GMO’s. Sounds like a good conspiracy theory to me!

So, who are the villains in this flick? Well, big companies of course, where money rules and ethics is not part of their vocabulary… and governments, or maybe only certain politicians that are ultimately puppets of the big corporations that put them there in the first place. You have guessed it, the Bush administration (of course!) and Monsanto, one of the biggest (if not THE biggest) agricultural companies of the world. According to the Monsanto website, this is who they say they are: “Monsanto is an agricultural company. We apply innovation and technology to help farmers around the world be successful, produce healthier foods, better animal feeds and more fiber, while also reducing agriculture's impact on our environment.” This is certainly not the picture one gets in Deborah Koons Garcia’s movie. I am not saying that what she has portrayed is right, but even if only a tiny bit of it is true, it just proves once again that money does talk!

Have you ever heard of Round-Up? It is a registered herbicide that kills off almost anything that is green… This seems to have been Monsanto’s trump card in the 1970’s when weeds had become a huge problem for farmers who had moved in the direction of monocultures. Monocultures had produced an ecological vacuum that insects and pathogens as well as weeds could exploit. (Here again one can see that the statement biodiversity equals resilience (Epstein 1997) holds true!!)

A president was set when in 1978 the first live organism, an oil eating microbe was patented in the USA. But the pawpaw really hit the fan when gene splicing came into play. This opened the flood gates and the race was on! Through biotechnology Monsanto produced and patented the first Round-Up-ready seed and soon the company that produced the pesticides and herbicides also produced and sold the seeds. Not a healthy combination I would think. According to Garcia, Monsanto today owns more than 11,000 patents of live organism, many of them seeds that have not been genetically modified!

My intention though was not to try and retell the movie, but rather to look at some of the claims that have been made and see what evidence I could find for either side. Are GM foods safe? Have they been tested well enough? What are the environmental impacts of releasing GM plants into an environment? My search on the net began and instead of finding overwhelming evidence for either side, I found relatively little concrete evidence considering the amount of publicity this topic does enjoy in the news media.

An interesting article by Prakash (2001), The Genetically Modified Crop Debate in the Context of Agricultural Evolution, claims that “no unequivocal evidence of harm to our health or the environment from GM crops” has been documented. Prakash (2001) further argues that societies anxieties over GM products is fuelled amongst others by the lack of reliable information on safeguards that are in place, the constant negative reporting in the news media and a general lack of awareness of how food production has evolved. He argues that food has been manipulated long before GMO’s came into play and never before was the safety of foods questioned. Two wrongs however do not make a right and since this is still a very new field, I do think that scientist should rather err on the side of caution. This is highlighted by Andow and Zwahlen (2006) by admitting that the scientific understanding of the factors affecting the environmental risk of transgenic plants (genetically modified) is still in its infancy.

Three kinds of environmental risks were identified in 1997 by Snow and Morán-Palma. These are (1) non-target and biodiversity risks (including non-target species, ecosystem functions, and effects on soils; (2) risks associated with gene flow and recombination; (3) risks associated with the evolution of resistance in the target organisms, such as insect pests to transgenic Bt crops and weeds to the herbicides applied to transgenic herbicide-tolerant crops. (Bt stands for Bacillus thuringiensis. It is an endospore forming, soil-dwelling bacterium. It contains a gene that produces a protein that is toxic to Leidoptera and Coleptera species. This gene is referred to as the Cry-gene. (Wikipedia contributors. Bacillus thuringiensis))

Many studies claim some potential harm and since this is but a young science, potential harm should not be disregarded. Three studies that have been widely referenced are Losey et al. (1999) that reported on monarch larvae being adversely affected by Bt corn pollen; Hilbeck et al. (1998 a,b) reported a higher mortality rate of immature predatory lacewings (Chrysoperla carnea) when they were fed larvae that had consumed Bt corn; and Quist and Chapela (2001) that reported on traditional maize in Mexico that had been contaminated with GM corn varieties. The first two studies indicate non-target species that could be negatively affected by GM crops and the third indicates a direct threat to the genetic diversity of wild relatives of corn due to gene flow.

I could not find a study that directly links any human health risks to present GM crops. I did however find that there are intergovernmental agencies out there that do monitor GM foods closely. Haslberger (2003) reported that the Codex Alimetarius Commission, a joint FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) /WHO (World Health Organization) Food Standard Programme has now also included unintended effects of GM foods as part of their health risk assessment. That means that before any GM food can be marketed a case-by-case safety assessment needs to be conducted. This includes the “investigation of direct health effects (toxicity), the tendency to provoke allergic reactions (allergenicity), the specific components thought to have nutritional or toxic properties, the stability of the inserted gene, nutritional effects associated with genetic modification and any unintended effects that could result from the gene insertion. Of particular note, the task force broadens risk assessment to encompass not only health-related effects of the food itself, but also the indirect effects of food on human health (e.g., potential health risks derived from outcrossing)” (Haslberger 2003, p 739).

From what I have read so far, I have to admit that the movie does seem to be one-sided. (But we all thrive on conspiracy theories!!) I am however not convinced that GMO’s hold no danger. My biggest concern is not so much GM foods, but rather the potential devastating effects that GM crops (and soon possibly animals and other plants…) can have on our biodiversity!

References:

Andow DA and Zwahlen C. 2006. Assessing environmental risks of transgenic plants. Ecology Letters 9:196-214.

Epstein PR. 1997. Climate, Ecology, and Human Health. Consequences 3(2): (no pages given). Also available from: http://www.gcrio.org/CONSEQUENCES/vol3no2/climhealth.html [updated 15 November 2004]

Haslberger AG. 2003. Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects. Nature Biotechnology 21:739-741.

Hilbeck A, Baumgartner M, Fried PM and Bigler F. 1998a. Effects of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis corn-fed prey on mortality and development time of immature Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Environmental Entomology 27:480–487.

Hilbeck A, Moar WJ, Pusztai-Carey M, Filippini A and Bigler
F. 1998b. Toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab toxin to the predator Chrysoperla carnea. Environmental Entomology 27:1255–1263.

Losey JE, Rayor LS and Carter ME. 1999. Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae. Nature 399:214.

Prakash CS. 2001. The Genetically Modified Crop Debate in the Context of Agricultural Evolution. Plant Physiology 26:8-15.
(also available online from: http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/content/full/126/1/8)

Quist D and Chapela IH. 2001. Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico. Nature 414:541-543.

Snow AA and Morán-Palma, P. (1997). Commercialization of transgenic plants: potential ecological risks. BioScience 47:86–96.

Wikipedia contributors. Bacillus thuringiensis [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 11, 16:16 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 30]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacillus_thuringiensis&oldid=69040269.

Image credit: http://www.kneja.hr/gmo/slike_gmo/gmo_tomato_b.jpg

Karen Marais
BCB Hons NISL student
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville

E-mail 2657211@uwc.ac.za

Web http://brit-journal.com/karen2006bcbnisl/

BOOK REVIEW:

2006-08-29T22:33:00.000+02:00

Book Review: Out Of Africa’s Eden: The peopling of the world, by Stephen Oppenheimer.

Through the crash-course in human evolution from the discussion of Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarenis, and the functions and pressures theorised for the beginning of bipedalism and the expansion of the human brain, intellect and language, comes the romantic story of us. We as modern humans are one big family linked by the very substance which makes us who we are, DNA.

Although the book revolves around the science of mitochondrial DNA, passed down from mother to daughter, the suggestion that the Y-chromosomal DNA of men, that of the incorruptible small segment, could actually reflect greater resolution of time and geography than mitochondria DNA, is extremely interesting, and may even see a shift in future thinking regarding the historic movements of the human population.

The Out of Africa Hypothesis seems to drown out the shadow of the Multiregional Hypothesis in this book, which although honours the scientific relevance of those dwindling scientific communities, does so through an informative lay approach to understanding the genetics involved. One aspect, that of contemporary respect for alternative opinion, is however not honoured in this book. I feel that although a definite separation between Creationism and Darwinian theory should be observed, religious aspects should be respected equally to that of science, and neither should be dismissive of the other. It is clear from the author’s opinion that he is dismissive of Creationist theory, with specific reference to the following quote “We were not ‘put’ here fully formed, thinking, talking, and unique among animals.” The quoted sentence refers to the book of Genesis, when Man was put onto the Earth by God, who made him unique among animals, giving him dominion over everything he saw. As a studying scientist, but also a Christian by faith, I find this statement rather disrespectful and one which detracts from the essence of the book. In addition, the author makes repeated reference to biblical history and nomenclature for “ease of reading” throughout the book, which is somewhat ironic.

Ultimately it was destined for the human race to move out of Africa, since Africa was the cradle of mankind. The climate and the window period conducive to successful migration facilitated the successful migration of Homo erectus and later modern man into the rest of the world. The first exodus of humans out of Africa probably ended in disaster, as no genetic evidence survives that can substantiate their survival. The climate at the time of the first exodus of humans out of Africa suddenly became globally colder, an ice age, which locked up vast majorities of available water in polar ice-sheets, which turned once lush areas into desert. A good example of this is the Sahara desert, which would have trapped any attempts of migrating back South through what is known as the Northern corridor to more hospitable lands. Interestingly, it may also have been the Southward creeping of the North-polar ice-sheet which forced Homo nearderthalensis further into Europe before the appearance of modern humans in Europe approximately 50 000 years ago.

So, what about the Australians then? Apart from the speculation that there is still only one route out of Africa, the alternative route, the Southern Route, which gives evidence to the migration of humans out of Africa and through Asia and eventually South to Australia, reflects a more possible and ingenious migration route. The Northern route is well documented, however, what struck me was the interpretation of the Southern route, which seems to agree with my instinctive understanding of self-preservation. It is simply explained. With the onset of an ice age and generally drier conditions, food resources would have become notably scarce, in addition to water. Not only do most rivers run into the sea, but the sea shore itself can provide an alternative food source which can be taken advantage of. There is much evidence of sea food harvesting in South Africa and the Red Sea, and with a reduction in sea levels and a beach-comber come nomadic existence, it was only a matter of time before modern humans found themselves following the outline of the continents out of Africa, Asia and towards Australia. An interesting section in the book suggests that contemporary, more archaic human species, indigenous to Asia, may well have been the reason for a possible prolonged expansion from Africa. The author makes a valid point, and one which we need to remember as not anthropomorphic as some may suggests, modern humans today and modern humans then, share the infinite possibilities of their own thought processes, are ingenious, cultured, and survivors. Was Africa modern human’s territorial home, which he was happy with, and did possible scouting expeditions return with news of competition and therefore less-favourable conditions? Could we have moved out of Africa earlier than is suggested? The first Australians arrived on the new continent not only as the first placental mammals, but as a calculated progressive step taken as an opportunity at the last great ice age. Genetic evidence reveals support for this through multiple founding maternal genetic lines.

Modern Europeans are all descendant from humans from Asia who crossed over the green fertile strip corridor about 50 000 years ago. Again it was the fate of the climate, which facilitated the migration from Asia into Europe of modern humans. Without the warming of Southern Asia, creating improved monsoon conditions, modern humans may well not have arrived in Europe at this time, and the ultimate fate of the Neanderthals could well have been different.

Impressively, the author tackles the issue of cultural prejudice, which is something not only relevant to our time and place in South Africa, but something I did not expect to have resulted in historical indoctrination where the history of human development, and even the historical essence of being human, is often reflective of social opinion. The statement that “First impressions last” sums up this section in the book, which deals superficially, though concisely, with the problem of perceived ideas and assumptions of cultural supremacy among contemporary Homo species. Indeed, who are we to portray Homo neaderthalensis as inferior based on their technology and our own assumptions when their brains were in fact larger than ours, and our technology was almost equal to theirs for a vast period in time… This begs the question: Could what is seen as scientific fact, actually be scientific prejudice? Is scientific history as we know it actually scientific propaganda? It is sad to think that historically, Europeans particularly have seen their development as being superior and it is no surprise that the idea that they are descendant of those Africans who migrated into Asia was difficult to accept when this theory was put forward. The European story is most interesting as it displays the process by which the climatic conditions once again can have a primary impact on the direction and the definition of peoples. Climatic changes were responsible for the change in skin colour gradually from a dark melanised skin to a paler skin colour. The reason for this is relatively simple. Through some investigation I discovered that Our African ancestors and similarly our African brothers and sisters of today, were subjected to higher ultraviolet radiation from the sun because of the geographically closer location to the equator than Europe for example. Melanin is the natural pigment in our skin, which acts as a sunscreen to block out excessive and harmful ultraviolet radiation. A problem arises if too much melanin is present in skin tissue in areas where there is comparatively low ultraviolet radiation. Vitamin D cannot be properly synthesised, and therefore the absorption rate of calcium is restricted as a result. As Africans moved into Asia and then into Europe, the lower levels of ultraviolet radiation resulting from the geographical position, caused a reduction in melanisation of the skin through natural selection processes of evolution. Selective processes also moulded human physique and even skull size and head shape through differences in diet and adaptation requirements to different landscapes.

The genetic explanations of the spread of humanity through Asia is extremely interesting and detailed, making a clear distinction between the fact that genetics indicates molecular migration and movement and not necessarily cultural or racial migration. The impact of the climate is one, which is still dominant, and is most likely the driving force, which either pushed or pulled the human population into the regions it is historically known from. We were always going to be impacted by our environment, leading us to make decisions for survival. It is ironic to think that humans through technology have since conquered this barrier and it is now the environment, which is being manipulated by us, possibly to our future detriment.

I agree with the author’s assessment of academic rivalry and politics, which he terms as “academic civil wars” or “turf wars.” Using the example of the origins of modern humans into the Americas, he does not merely present the information as “fact,” but I feel that he gives the reader the neutral observer position to firstly present possible alternative solutions to whether modern humans migrated before or after the major ice-age into America, before allowing one’s own judgement on the academic processes involved in controversy. I feel that this is another reflection of the earlier suggestion of scientific propaganda and prejudice.

The message ringing clear in my mind after reading this book, on a purely objective front, is one of placement and clarity. Placement of who we are and how we got here, and clarity about our vulnerability, yet strengths as well. Evolution has taken the next step and has not stopped with us. We are constantly under evolutionary stressors, be them disease, overcrowding, and general competition. We have entered an evolutionary path of the mind, where the next path of eve could well see the human race exceeding its physical boundaries once again, though not through the graces of climate, but rather our own intelligence and ingenuity, possibly to other worlds. On the flip side though, could our thirst for development and power not lead us to our own extinction before our ultimate goal? What has happened to our natural innocence?

In general I enjoyed the book, however I have my reservations as indicated above. I recommend this book to anyone who is interested in their own heritage and history, even pre-history. For me the significance in this book does not lie in its historical documentation and link with genetics, but with a future message and a classic contrast with what we are doing to our environment now, compared to how we lived then.

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

FYNBOS FORUM

2006-08-28T22:58:00.000+02:00

I recently attended the Fynbos Forum held at Goudini Spa near Rawsonville (09–11 August 2006). This is an annual conference where researchers, students, planners, managers, landowners and other stakeholders get together to present and discuss research results and management issues and also to formulate priorities for future research and conservation actions required to ensure the conservation and sustainability of the fynbos ecosystems.

I attended a wide variety of presentations, many of them with a fair amount of “doom and gloom” of what the future may hold for fynbos. Here is a summary of two topics I found interesting and that conveyed some message of hope for the future…

FIRE:

Fire was a topic covered by several presentations as well as by a workshop. Two presentations covered fire in the Outeniqua Nature Reserve. Firstly Anne Lise Schutte-Vlok presented a fire history analysis of the Outeniqua Nature Reserve. All possible records of fires in the reserve from 1930 until present produced a result of over 300 fires for the Outeniqua Nature Reserve and adjacent areas during this 76 year time span. All available data on where the fires occurred and the extent of each fire was recorded and electronically captured using ArcView GIS. All available post-fire data as well as permanent Protea monitoring plot data that had been collected for the reserve was used to evaluate the risk of too frequent fires, the affect of out of season fires, fire intensity and fire size. An analysis of the fire history was then done using all of the above information.

It was found that some areas of the reserve had had far too frequent fires and that post-fire recruitment of many reseeding Protea species in those areas was either non-existent or very poor. The reason for this is because many Protea species have a relative long juvenile period. Some may take as long as 8-10 years before they set seeds for the first time. Should a fire thus return to such an area before these plants have matured, entire populations could thus be wiped out. According to Anne Lise this has now happened and careful monitoring will now be required to see if recruitment from neighbouring sites may take place over time. Should this not happen, active restoration work might well be needed.

A second presentation by the current manager of the reserve (Paul Buchholz) highlighted the importance of an integrated approach to manage and maintain the diversity of the reserve. He also pointed out the difficulties of managing such a reserve that borders onto urban areas, plantations and other developed landscapes. Since fire is an essential part of the ecology of the fynbos biome a balance between competing fire management objectives needs to be found. Such a balance can however only be achieved (if at all!) “through a better understanding of the role of fire in the ecosystem, the legal requirements to protection of life and property and the resources available for protected area management”.

To develop an integrated fynbos fire management program, managers now need to use all resources available, including making use of a GIS to map areas that have recently burnt and those that need burning. Through such tools maps with all the different “ages” of the veld can be produced that can help managers integrate this knowledge into objective management plans. These fire management programs need to be updated regularly but also need to be flexible enough to integrate new knowledge as it becomes available.

It seems clear that the more human activities encroach on natural environments, the more active management of such natural environments will be needed to help sustain the biodiversity of those areas. More research to achieve a better understanding of how ecosystems function and how plant communities and species respond to certain stresses is essential for managers to integrate this knowledge into their overall management programs for reserves.

I found this presentation positive in the sense that such a scientific approach is taken on the management of this reserve!

COLLECTIVE KNOWLEDGE:

Jan Vlok gave a very enlightening talk on how important information sharing has become if we want to make sure that future decisions regarding biodiversity at all levels are well informed and sound. He pointed out that a lot of research has been done about fynbos ecosystems over the past 20 years but very little of that knowledge has been passed down to the end-users, that is the farmers that ultimately manage huge tracts of lands including the fragments of natural vegetation on their farms, consultants that do impact assessments, government agencies that are responsible for approving developments…

One such “passing down of information” in the form of a book of guidelines has recently seen the light. The Ecosystem Guidelines for Environmental Assessment in the Western Cape was commissioned by the Fynbos Forum. This has been a comprehensive and collaborative effort to produce a user friendly guide that focuses on “planning for persistence”. Accumulated field experience and specialist knowledge has been turned into decisive guidelines for affective action for biodiversity conservation in the Western Cape.

Richard Cowling said in his foreword to these guidelines that: “Making the transition to sustainable lifestyles is going to be a hard slog. But we must start now – and this document is, indeed, a great start.”

I surely do hope that this document will be widely used by all those for whom it was intended and that it will make a positive difference in future planning decisions from farmers up to government agencies.

Viva fynbos, viva!

Karen Marais
BCB Hons NISL student
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville

E-mail 2657211@uwc.ac.za

Web http://brit-journal.com/karen2006bcbnisl/

BRONZE AGE FACTS AND IMPACTS.

2006-08-19T23:51:00.000+02:00

The Bronze Age was the time in the development of human culture, before the Iron age of technology, but after the Stone Age. The Bronze Age signifies the first use of metal for tool-making and weapons. In the middle East by 3500 BC, the use of metal casting had been established [1]. Metal casting involves the actual shaping of the metal into various types of moulds, which enable the creation of multiple copies and therefore also mass-production of weaponry [1]. The link with the Neolithic period is an important one since it can be argued that without the settling of hunter-gatherers into small communities and the pursuit of agriculture (subsistence farming initially) and animal domestication, the need for better tools for these purposes and for protection or reverence of tribal leaders (as status symbols) may have taken much longer to develop.

The history of War dates back to the earliest war-related archaeological discovery of Wendorf, that of site 117 at Jebel Sahaba, Nubia of between 12 000 and 10 000 BC, where 24 of 59 skeletons are associated with stone projectile artefacts [2]. The transition from stone weaponry to the use of metals in warfare must have given the advantage to those with more experience in not only finding the ores and smelting them, but also to those who could fashion the raw materials into different forms of weaponry. The philosophical argument however stands between the suggestions that humans throughout prehistory lived in perpetual peace, and therefore warfare is a relatively new “adaptation,” or that humans were constantly at war with each other, as a natural part of evolution [3].

It is suggested that warfare and associated politics evolved through multiple independent origins, the regions of Mesopotamia (3000 BC), China (2500 BC), and Mesoamerica (900 BC) [4]. Around 4000 BC, city-states were beginning to develop in Mesopotamia, and as they grew, conflicts became more common [5]. The relationship between politics and warfare is obvious in the attempts to control the transportation and irrigation routes of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which were a source of wealth. The acquisition of metals, seen as a luxury, could also have added to jealousy and greed [5]. War broke out between the two Sumarian cities of Umma and Lagash in 2525 BC over a boundary dispute. The two cities were only 29km apart, and the Umma were defeated [5]. Important is the creation of a commemorative stele or stone slab, which was erected in commemoration of this war [6]. The stele depicts the soldiers of Lagash in copper helmets, carrying short spears destroying the Umma [6]. This is the first evidence of copper helmets being worn by soldiers. The success in the copper helmet was in its defence against the battle mace [6]. The stele also depicts the first record of the wheel in combat, being used in the form of chariots drawn by wild donkeys [6]. Further into the technological development of bronze in Mesopotamia, was the invention of the bronze socket axe in 2500 BC with varying designs, though the blade of the axe was designed to narrow to a point to be able to penetrate bronze plate body armour. This axe became one of the most successful weapons of its time [6]. The earliest record of warfare in China is from 2146 BC with their first interstate war [7]. With warfare came the increased reliance upon wood as fuel for smelting the bronze to be fashioned into various objects as well as chariots and spear or arrow shafts. An increased use of wood could have led to the deforestation of certain areas [8], which also had to contend with a change in climate towards the end of the Bronze Age. The addition of over-exploitation of forests during this period is thought to have led to the increased spread of acid peat bogs in Europe and more specifically in Ireland [8].

Since the Bronze age occurred at different periods relevant to different civilisations, it must be understood that the Bronze Age was in fact the period in a civilisation’s development when metalworking reached an advanced state for the smelting of copper and tin from their natural ore in addition to mixing or alloying these different metals to form bronze (which can also be a mixture of copper with phosphorus, arsenic [9], manganese, aluminium and even silicon) [10].

The earliest records of Bronze Age culture can be seen in the Maykop (3500 to 2500 BC) [11], a culture known for its practice of burial, situated in the South of Russia from the Taman peninsula [12] situated in today’s Krasnodar Krai, bordered by the Sea of Azov in the North and the Strait of Kerch in West, and the Black Sea in the South [12]. This area is particularly rich in history through many periods, having been ruled by the Scythians around 700 BC [13], the Hellenistic state of Cimmerian Bosporus [14], who were made up of the Sarmations, Greeks, Jews, and Anantolians, the Huns in the fourth century CE, and the Khazars in the mid-seventh century [12]. Though this area saw many migrations of different peoples, was it the discovery of bronze which is the cornerstone of all this history?

In the period just before the true Bronze age, the Chalcolithic period, which existed in Europe and the Near East between 4500 and 3500 BC [13], stone and copper artefacts co-existed [9]. This is the time when smiths or metalworkers accidentally created bronze as a result of a previous overexploitation of the purer natural copper ores that could be found in nuggets, which led the smiths to mine out ores that had higher quantities of impurities in them. These impurities affectively created the first types of bronze when smelted, though the smiths did not realise this to begin with [9]. It is suggested that smiths eventually began to discern the differences in the bronzes, which was being produced into raw ingots by the smelters, and would probably have selected the specific bronzes according to their own experiences of quality and hardness or softness of the different mixes [9]. Eventually the experience of the skilled smiths would lead them to mix different ingots of bronze grades to create from it exactly what they wanted in terms of strength and quality, to produce the most prised artefacts, so in fact, metal working became not only a skill but an art [9].

An interesting article on the Stone Age history of Ireland, encompasses interesting aspects of the impacts which the discovery of bronze and metal-work had on the culture of the peoples of that time [16]. The technology of bronze work, though discovered in Europe around 4000 BC, only became adopted into the culture of the “Irish” through its introduction of the “French” in 2000 BC. Not only was the use of the metal introduced, but with it the experiences of many years of working with bronze that the people from what is now known as France had [16].

One of the original mines of the Bronze Age exists today at county Cork at Mount Gabriel in Ireland, one of the only remaining mines in Europe apart from those in Austria [15]. It is thought that the copper ore was removed from the mines by lighting fires deep in the shafts under the areas of ore, exposing it to heat. Once hot, the ore was splashed with cold water effectively causing it to shatter. The shattered pieces of ore were then removed to be smelted [16]. Two counties on the South Western tip of Ireland produced an estimated 370 tonnes of copper for making bronze [16]. It is also suggested that since this amount far out-weighs the total amount of bronze artefacts found (though understandably, this would generally be low today in comparison to what was made during the time), copper must have been exported to other regions thereby influencing trade between nations, which could ultimately have influenced culture [16].

The Bronze Age also saw the initial stratification of society into classes. Since metallurgy was seen as an important role in the manufacture of not only weapons but also display items including jewellery, smiths were given a relatively high status in society [17]. Items such as jewellery and other items of decoration also indicate that there must have been an upper-class market to which these items were being supplied. Evidence of class-discrimination is most evident in the way the different classes were buried [17].

With increased exploitation on naturals resources, landscapes were transformed during the Bronze Age, with particular emphasis given to increases use of domesticated animals towards the end of the Bronze Age, and the planting of economically viable crops in the Mediterranean region, where olives, figs and grapes were often grown depending on the local needs and local developing economies [18].

To conclude, an exciting paper by Hummel et al. 2005 discuses the origin of an HIV-resistant allele of the chemokine receptor gene in a selection of the population of Europeans in the late Bronze Age. The mutation expresses resistance to what is known as level 1 HIV infection, and is believed to have originated from a single mutation, which rapidly spread though the Caucasian populations of Europe. Although it was thought that the selective pressure of the bubonic plague on the genetics of the people of particularly medieval time could have contributed to the expression and increased spread of this gene, the paper argues against this possibility. It is suggested though that this finding could be seen as an unknown selective advantage of resistance in Caucasians to HIV 1 infection [19].

Reading through the vast material available on the Bronze Age, one gets the overwhelming feeling of human development and ingenuity. What I find fascinating are the similarities in developments of culture and warfare, though at different times, of cultures that may never have even known of each other’s existence. I would like to believe that the philosophy of the origins of warfare are a relatively new development, however, it would be interesting to see what the similarities and history of violence is, through evolutionary time. Violence may well be the result of an instinct to survive, but added to the skill to enhance personal protection against one’s enemies, defensive strategies may well have developed into offensive strategies of war.

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

Picture credits: http://joseph_berrigan.tripod.com/id46.html

References:

[1] The History Channel [Internet] [cited 19 August 2006: 15:36] Available from:
http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/search/search.php?enc=7182

[2] Ferguson R. B. 2000. The Causes and Origins of Primitive Warfare: On Evolved Motivations for War. Anthropological Quarterly 73(3): 159-164.

[3] Haas J. 2001. Archaeology at the Millenium: Warfare and the Evolution of Culture [Internet] [cited 19 Aug 2006: 16:58] Available from:
http://www.santafe.edu/research/publications/workingpapers/98-10-088.pdf

[4] Cioffi-Revilla C. 1996. Origins and Evolution of War and Politics. International Studies Quarterly 40(1): 1-22.

[5] Ancient Mesopotamia: Early Sumarian Warfare [Internet] [cited 19 Aug 2006: 17:24] Available from: http://joseph_berrigan.tripod.com/id46.html

[6] Wikipedia contributors. Stele [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 6, 15:28 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 19]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stele&oldid=68019076.

[7] Cioffi-Revilla C., Lai D. 1995. War and Politics in Ancient China, 2700 B.C. to 722 B.C.: Measurement and Comparative Analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution 39(3): 467-494.

[8] McNeill J. R. Environmental History: Woods and Warfare in World History [Internet] [cited 19 Aug 2006: 22:39] Available from:
http://historycooperative.press.uiuc.edu/journals/eh/9.3/mcneill.html

[9] Cowen R. University of California, Department of Geology [Internet] [cited 16 Aug 2006: 20:58] Available from:
http://www-geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH4.html

[10] Wikipedia contributors. Bronze Age [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 12, 17:42 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 16]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bronze_Age&oldid=69241936.

[11] About: Archaeology, Chalcolithic [Internet] [cited 16 Aug 2006: 20:53] Available from: http://archaeology.about.com/od/cterms/g/chalcolithic.htm

[12] Wikipedia contributors. Taman peninsula [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 24, 11:40 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 19]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taman_peninsula&oldid=65535655.

[13] Wikipedia contributors. Scythia [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 18, 02:34 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 19]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scythia&oldid=70348637

[14] Wikipedia contributors. Bosporan Kingdom [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 14, 14:27 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 19]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bosporan_Kingdom&oldid=69588630.

[15] Wikipedia contributors. Maykop culture [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 2, 21:51 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 19]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maykop_culture&oldid=61747032.

[16] The Ireland Story [Internet] [cited 17 August 2006: 21:17] Available from:
http://www.wesleyjohnston.com/users/ireland/past/pre_norman_history/bronze_age.html

[17] Gilman A. 1981. The Development of Social Stratification in Bronze Age Europe. Current Anthropology 22(1): 1 – 23.

[18] Fall P. L., Lines L., Falconer S. E. 1998. Seeds of Civilisation: Bronze Age Rural Economy and Ecology in the Southern Levant. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 88: 107.

[19] Hummel s., Schmidt D., Kremeyer B., Herrmann B., Oppermann M. 2005. Detection of the CCR5-Δ32 HIV resistance gene in Bronze Age Skeletons. Genes and Immunity 6: 371 – 374.

PAPER REVIEW:

2006-08-17T20:37:00.000+02:00

Biological Invasion Risks and the Public Good: an Economic Perspective.
Charles Perrings, Mark Williamson, Edward B. Barbier, Doriana Delfino, Silvana Dalmazzone, Jason Shogren, Peter Simmons, & Andrew Watkinson (2002).
Conservation Ecology 6(1) 1, online at: http://www.consecol.org/

This paper suggests that the cause of the problem of alien invasives are economic and therefore require solutions which are also economic.

Four reasons are given for the increasing concern of alien invasives:

1) Alien invasive introductions are increasing at an alarming rate, added to, the addition of the weakening or scaling down of measures of eradication and control.
2) With an increase in alien invasives comes an associated increase in the cost of alien invasions.
3) Invasions are associated with a relatively “high degree of uncertainty because the risks they pose are both ‘endogenous, ‘ and because alien invasions often involve novel interactions.”
4) The “weakest-link” is the control and the exclusion of alien invasives.

The argument put forward is: An economic solution to the alien invasives problem has two facets. Incentives must be used to change our behaviour, and by so doing, prevent alien species introductions, establishment and their spread, and, develop institutions to effectively enforce and control the exclusion of invasives.

The definition of ‘endogenous’ is “the origination or production within an organism or cell”, “being produced or grown within,” i.e., this definition suggests that point no. 3 refers to the difficulty is discerning the suitable treatment and action to take for, and how to label alien invasives, or categorise them, to facilitate the most successful exclusion or control strategies.

The paper indicates that under the Convention on Biological Diversity, the definition of alien invasive species is those organisms which are introduced, can become established, can become naturalised and spread outside of their native range, but also that their impacts are significantly harmful, and therefore negative.

Apart from the common understanding of the economic impacts of alien invasives, such as the cost involved in associated costs to control weeds, invasives and pathogens, economics also incorporates the “understanding of the interactions between our behaviour which can be seen as the causative action, and natural processes, as well as seeking solutions at both institutional and behavioural levels.”

The authors specifically label the control of alien invasive species as “A public good of a very particular kind,” however, they also point out that the level of control of invasive species in one area or country, has a direct influence on the risk faced by other areas because of the movement of people and trade. An important point made is that due to the fact that the control of invasive species is an international and global responsibility, it is left to “uncoordinated efforts of different countries,” where there is insufficient control to protect the public interest over other hidden agendas (Sound familiar Richard…?…how green is the UWC roof indeed!).

A starting realisation which is put forward in this paper, and one which rings loud for South Africa and other developing African nations, is there will be (and is) ineffective and limited levels of protection against infectious diseases associated with the direct constraints of available resources. Biological invasion hot potato is and will remain HIV in Southern Africa, and the authors suggest that economics can help to identify the social causes of the problem and develop solutions through institutions. A powerful statement made suggests that in the conditions indicated above, invasive alien species control is the “weakest-link” of public good, and, the solutions required must be less politically motivated. (personal interpretation of “black-lists, white-lists, quarantine, and ad-hoc eradication programmes.”)

“The cost of biological invasions.”

Apart from the discussion on relative costs of invasive species on a national level in the USA, the paper indicates that the complete costs of biological invasions include more than just the control of the invasives or the cost of their control. The cost to the host ecosystem must be included, as well as the cost to human populations dependant upon the host ecosystem.

There are no global estimates of the widespread effects of invasions in general, though invasives are suggested to be one of the main causes of organism extinction, be it in local or total populations, the economic implications of which are yet to be experienced. This could occur through a number of factors including competition and superior exploitation of resources.

“Social & Economic cause of Biological invasions.”

The authors indicate that little research has been undertaken regarding the study of the “social as well as the economic causes of biological invasions” external to the more important and seemingly prioritised set of selected biological invasions of agricultural pests etc. It is directly suggested that invasions are the consequence of decisions made to use exotic species as sources of food, for habitat fragmentation (which could include dune stability?), and the “general movement of goods and people.” These decisions are aligned with not only social customs, but also what the paper labels as “incentive effects.” Incentive effects lead ultimately to wealth-creation. An important indication is that the response of people to invasive species and the spread thereof is generally slow. The relevant example of HIV is a good example. What is not indicated here is that culture in addition to economics plays an important role, and the ignorance of education, where education is a luxury in most developing nations, the lack of knowledge is the fuel supplying energy to the “weakest-link” as mentioned earlier. Generally people ignore the changes in the cost of their behaviour. Is this an attitude of shifted responsibility, or a total lack thereof?

The point made: Human behaviour is the cause for the spread of alien invasive species, however, a response of adaptation or mitigation can change the outcome to either curbing the spread of alien invasives to reducing the impacts of such an invasion. Better actions would be designed to factor in the value of such an affect.

Interestingly, when biological invasions directly impact individuals, their behaviour towards the invasion can change. The example is given of infectious diseases, which people respond to as a threat and therefore seek out immediate solutions to, relative to the “constraints imposed by their general socio-economic conditions.”

Small islands are predisposed to invasions. This is partly due to their general size and associated native biodiversity, which can be unique and therefore vulnerable and affected in smaller spaces of time. The importance of agriculture, tourism and the links of trade including the production of primary products commonly associated with small countries or islands (like sugar etc.) can lead to largely open economies and higher potentials therefore for imported (and exported) invasions. Ecosystems must be seen as varying in their risk and vulnerability to invasions, since some will be more predisposed for certain invasions than others, since invasive organisms do need to follow a general path of acceptable establishment which includes habitat and food resource and climate. Ecosystems with low natural diversity as for some island states, where predators may be lacking, may be more vulnerable to invasion than those of higher diversity, where it could also be argued that competition and niche-reservation is at a higher overall level. Vulnerability is also directly related to the way the land is used, and to the implementation of specific control measures for the prevention of invasions.

Would you believe that habitat conservation, through habitat fragmentation, as suggested by Richard Knight in one of his lectures, and the authors of this paper, can be blamed for the increased susceptibility of ecosystems to invasions. This makes sense if the fragmentation of an ecosystem restricts or excludes the functioning of micro-variables and ecological links of organisms within it, however, this is generally not seen as a concern over the theory of “Feel Good” that is often associated with macro-conservation. Without total habitat conservation and an understanding of the complex workings within an ecosystem, conservation efforts could be to none.

Trade and travel has a major impact on the frequency and method of invasion facilitation (also see the paper on the invasive marine species of South Africa by Robinson et al. 2005, which I reviewed and posted on the Invasion Biology Blog as an example using the European shore crab and its movement between Table Bay Harbour and Hout Bay Harbour.) There is also a higher probability for the introduction of purposeful invasive species through a need for their use and adaptability or survivability over native available or lack of alternatives.

The overall risk of invasions is suggested to be related to the people’s use of the invasive species, or transportation thereof, the use of their predators or competitors, or lack thereof, and the effects of the dependence of trade on the invasive organism if it is of specific value or not.

Interestingly the authors include that the cost of the invasive species in terms of market price, is not usually reflective of the cost to society in the long term, and the damage as a result is external to the same market. Economic policies including income-related policies in agriculture, supports the increase in susceptibility of ecosystems to invasions with agriculture promotion through subsidised land use and export promotion of what are known as cash crops, has resulted in higher buses of pesticides and the destruction or replacement of general-area plant diversity. Ironically property rights are also indicated as inhibiting in the fight to control invasives.

Are the authors taking it a step too far when they suggest that species introductions can be used strategically as instruments of bio-terrorism and warfare, or is this a possibility we may encounter in the future?

“The control of invasive species is a ‘weakest-link’ public good…”

Quarantine, my favourite subject! Quarantine policies, though somewhat lacking in this country, if affective, reduces the risk to all people in the country to biological invasions. Unfortunately where human attitudes are concerned, because public goods and services, such as quarantine processes, are non-exclusive and seen as a right rather than a privilege, there is an incentive to take advantage of a “free ride” on the efforts of others, and in the process, the control of invasives is undersupplied. Again, a classic example of perceived responsibility, and the attitude often described as “NMP,” or “Not My Problem.” Unfortunate but true is the fact of quarantine failure if only one facility, be it private or public, fails to contain an invasive pathogen for example, and the same applies for riparian land-owners and the control or eradication of invasive plant species from their properties.

Commitment of resources, time and funding to the risk of invasions will not necessarily be reflected in the demographics of the people, be them rich or poor, though their reaction to high-profile biological invasions will usually be the same.

It is therefore the benefits of the prevention of alien invasive species to all peoples regardless of demographics or culture or level of education, determined by efforts of the weakest, since the weakest link in the complete chain determines its ultimate strength.

I have purposefully left out the section “What is to be done” in the hopes that the above message will spark your own ideas and sentiments to which you can add to this posting.

A most interesting paper indeed!

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

INTRODUCTION TO THE AZTEC EMPIRE'S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT

2006-08-16T13:49:00.000+02:00

Without going into too much detail about the general history of the Aztecs, I have tried to incorporate as much relevant material regarding the reliance and strain on natural resources as well as the affects of their religion and culture on others of the time as well as our more-modern time.

The name “Aztec” today refers to the collection of all those people who are linked to the founders of modern Mexico, those once migrant tribes from Mesoamerica, through the past associations of trade, religion and language [1]. The ancient Aztecs were an extremely successful civilisation, founding an empire in the 15th century, which was second only in size to that of the Incas in Peru. Apart from the imperial style administration, Aztec society was highly advanced and specialised specifically in terms of an agricultural economy. Agriculture played and important yet organically-adjusted part of everyday life, allowing for a relatively harmonious existence with nature [1]. The Aztec empire formed in the Valley of Mexico as a result of peace among faction states coming together to form an alliance of the three main states: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan [12].

The Aztecs believed that society itself was an integral part of the cosmos, which formed part of their intellectual and also religious beliefs. The Aztecs were acutely aware of their interdependence with nature, but also with that of humanity [1].

To look at the affects that the Aztecs had on their environment we need to delve into the history of their success not only in agriculture, but also trade and mining, as the depiction of everyday life and religious significance, which is relevant, and an integral part of life, is symbolised most expressively within their works of art.

The “Religious” footprint:

Religion was an extremely important part of everyday life, with literally hundreds of gods being worshipped that were associated with one or more everyday activity or natural occurance or aspect of nature such as the elements [1] of Earth, Fire, Water and Air. Some examples of their gods with associations with nature include ([1]):

“Ehecatl,” the god of wind.
“Quetzalcoatl,” the god of the air.
“Huitzilopochtli,” the god of the sun and war.
“Tonatiuh,” the god of the sun.
“Centeotl,” and “Xilonen,” the gods of corn.
“Tlaloc,” the god of rain.
“Xipe Totec,” the god of Spring.
“Xiuhtecuhtle,” the god of fire.

What is interesting is the association of fire with time, and time played an integral part of Aztec society. The “New Fire Ceremony” is one of the only Aztec rituals, which is documented both in historical documents and archaeological evidence [9]. The cosmos, time and fire played a significant role within the Aztec religion, and the “New Fire Ceremony” was a ritual enforced by the Aztecs as part of its imperial programme of legitimising control over scattered groups of neighbouring tribes [9].

Aztec religion is often associated with extravagant costumes and headdresses of colourful plumes of exotic-looking feathers. In an article by Frances Berdan (2004), “Circulation of Feathers in Mesoamerica,” published in “Feather Creations. Materials, Production and Circulation.” New York, Hispanic Society-Institute of Fine Arts, it is indicated that feathers were not only culturally significant, but the demand for different feathers from different birds from the home-range of the Aztecs was relatively large because not only were feathers used in religious displays as adornments for the gods, but also made up additions to textiles and shields and military costumes. Feathers became an asset of trade and changed hands many times through market places, making them high in demand in large quantities. Feathers ultimately became a precious commodity for the growing number of consumers, which included trade between tribes.

Feathers also became what are known as tribute items and sent “as tribute” both raw and as completed forms of art as forms of annual payment in accordance with the written law of the time. This law was spelled out in glyphs from the Codex Mendoza, where specific towns were indicated to give a specific tribute to the Aztec ruler [3]. There are 235 recorded species of bird in the Chiapas area in Mexico, of which 75.7% are permanent residents [4] and 464 bird species in the Chimalapas region, [5] however, it is unknown exactly how many species were exploited for their feathers [2].

So what impact did this have on the local bird populations?

Well, although there is some confusion regarding the specific species of birds used for feathers because of the differences in dialects where certain words meant different things in the Aztec world, according to Frances Berdan (2004), the following birds could have been used: For the red feathers, Scarlet macaw, or Roseate spoonbill, and the green feathers from either the Green (Pacific) Parakeet, or the Mexican Trogon. Trogons are known to be sexually dimorphic and the male bird’s plumage is different in colour to that of the female [13]. It is therefore possible that exploitation of one sex, primarily the male bird, for more colourful feathers, could have led to an impact on the breeding success of these birds at that time.

Apart from the extravagant use of feathers, the more morbid side of Aztec religion included ritual human sacrifices. A theory exists which suggests the reasons for such human sacrifices called “The Population Pressure Theory of Social Evolution,” which states that population pressure on natural resources could well be a major determining factor in the regularities or perceived irregularities in human socio-cultural evolution [6,8]. It is also theorised that the intensification of agriculture is directly related to population pressure on natural resources, and, population pressure actually results eventually in the evolution of pre-industry and politics [6].

So significant was the need for human sacrifice that the Aztecs even resorted to military and war-style human sacrifices in the form of an institution known as “Xochiyaoyotl” or “Flowery wars,” to fulfil the requirement [7]. During these Flower wars, two states agree to battle each other, but not to defeat the opposing contender, but to obtain the mortality requirement [7]. Interestingly, it may have been these ritual and religious wars, which gave the Aztecs the physical military practice, which affectively created one of the most experienced civilisations in war, of their time [7]. What is possibly also a suggestion is that with the elimination of suitable herbivorous animals from the region as a result of a growing population, could sacrifices not be seen as a cover for a more sinister function of survival, to reduce the population, or even to supplement the lack of meat-protein through canabbalism?

What impact did Aztec religion have on Christianity, and Christianity on Aztec religion?

I found a most interesting passage in the paper by Alice B. Kehoe (1979) where the author explains that the relatively recent depiction and use of the “Sacred Heart” of Jesus, and therefore devotion to this symbol, depicted sometimes by a realistically portrayed human heart (sometimes in flames), was a late development in Roman Catholicism. This depiction is thought to be the result of the interest and focus of Catholic scholars working with the missionaries with the Aztecs, who had used this symbol in their religion. The paper suggests that the adoption of this symbol into Roman Catholicism may be as a result of either co-incidence, or what is known today as “stimulus diffusion,” where acculturation occurs, i.e., the influence of one society or culture on another, as a result of continuous face-to face contact. It is suggested that certain aspects of one culture can be assimilated into another quite unconsciously, and the theory of “stimulus diffusion” is therefore an elusive one [10]. Even more interesting is the suggestion by Ruth Shonle (1924), that although it was originally thought that preliterate people (in the eyes of the missionaries) would happily exchange their religious beliefs for Christianity, in fact what took place most often was a fusion of both Christianity and the native religion into a new third type of religion [11].

So, if religion is the pivot by which everyday life functions, and, though seemingly rigid and powerful in its role in the pathway of certain ecological impacts by associated practices, how then does a change in religion, or a complete breakdown in religion not only change the culture of the people, but the way they go about their everyday lives? Would this be a negative or a positive change to the ecological relationship that the people would have with their environment, and did the exploitation of religion for purposes of trade have an impact on the ecological footprint?

In 1519, Spanish rule led by Hernán Cortéz took over the native town of Jalcomulco after an overthrow of the native Aztec overlords by the Spanish together with disgruntled native subjects. Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, the tribute system as mentioned above formed an integral part of the society in the town of Jalcomulco, but with the arrival of Hernán Cortéz and Roman Catholicism, the local population submitted to Christianity and the tithing system. A significant amount of wealth was built in this way for the Catholic Church, and the local people were labelled as subjects of the Spanish crown, which incidentally was administered almost entirely by the Church [12]. Money generated as part of the tithing system became part of a lending system for the haciendas of the region [12]. Haciendas were large landed estates owned primarily by the elite (Spanish) who also subsequently ran the local government. The native people of Jalcomulco would have been allowed to work on these estates to earn a wage, however, the owners of these estates often bound them to working the lands by keeping them in a constant situation of debt, a situation probably uncommon to these people, who were ultimately treated as slaves [12]. Religion then most certainly does play an important role in the economics and impressions left by a changing ecological footprint.

Although religion was the primary motivation for everyday aspects of life for the Aztecs, it was agriculture that was the principle activity of the people [14]. Farming was necessary to sustain the growing population of the Aztecs, as suggested by “The Population Pressure Theory of Social Evolution.” Apart from terraced agricultural sites on hills, which included irrigation and the use of fertiliser, the surrounding lands where the Aztecs lived were just not fertile enough to sustain large-scale continuous agriculture, so they invented what are known as Chinampas, or floating gardens built in the swamps [14]. Chinampas are still in use today as small home-gardens in the Mexico valley, and are unique in that they are thought to be the first type of hydroponics used in civilisation, and are completely nutrient recycle-orientated systems designed not only as space savers, but as renewable sources for food production.

To make the Chinampas, stakes or tree trunks were placed into the soil of the shallow lakes or swamps. Once they had taken root and started growing they gave stability for growing crops. These Chinampas were in fact artificial islands measuring about 30 meters long by 2.5m [15], with an area of 75m². The stakes or tree trunks were fenced into the general shape of the Chinampa using Wattle, which was then layered with mud and lake-bottom sediments, which are very fertile [15]. The mounds were added to until the actual level of these islands was raised above the water level [15]. Species of Willow were planted at each corner for strength and to give a certain amount of shade and wind protection to the crops being growth on the Chinampa, and there were channels created between the Chinampas just wide enough for canoes to fit between [15]. Water was used directly from the surrounding channels. Crops grown on the Chinampas included beans, squash, chilies, maize, tomatoes, and the herb known as amaranth [15]. Tomatoes were unknown to Europe until the 16th century, and its is this cultivation of tomatoes which led to the introduction and spread of the tomato around the world today [23]. Also, maize was often used in the form of popcorn strung together to decorate some of the Aztec gods…so next time you eat popcorn, give a thought to where it originated!

The successful growing population of the capital city of the Aztec empire, Tenochtitlan was thought to have been as a result of the Chinampa farms, which encircled the city [15]. The earliest Chinampas dated are from what is known as the Middle Postclassic Period, the period between the year 900 and the time of the Spanish conquests between 1521 and 1697 [16]. The Chinampas were used extensively on the lakes of Xochimilco and Chalco. Lake Xochimilco is located in the valley of Mexico and is what is known as an endorheic lake. An endorheic lake is actually a watershed from which there is no outflow of water, often forming as a closed basin [17]. Lake Xochimilco is actually a brackish lake, which makes up a series of lakes in the region, however lake Chalco is completely freshwater [17]. It may well have been slightly easier to grow crops in lake Chalco for this reason, though freshwater springs lined the lake [17] and this may well have been the source of irrigation water for the growing crops in this brackish environment.

The use of Chinampas not only provided the Aztecs with a continuous source of food, but the utilisation of such a system was environmentally friendly and the growth of food on islands gave a higher level of overall crop security and success since the majority of ground-dwelling pests could not access the crops surrounded by water [18]. It could also be argued that the Aztecs, in their success with agriculture provided enough food to sustain markets and trade, and therefore a type of economically driven society as a result, and, that the use of Chinampas can be seen as an attempt towards nature conservation since land was not cleared for farming [18].

On a different note though, the Chinampas would have had an impact on the aquatic fauna of the various lakes, so I decided to see if I could find some interesting facts to support my curiosity…

The Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum), a strange amphibian, which looks like a grown up tadpole, was once abundant in lake Xochimilco until the creation of the Chinampas. The Chinampas raised the base level of the lake into the useable mounds mentioned above, drastically reducing not only the water flow and movement but also the habitat of the Axolotl, which is today one of Mexico’s most threatened species and labelled as a critically endangered species on the IUCN red data list of species, with an existing population area of only 10km² [19, 22]. The Axolotl was well known to the Aztec people and held an important position in their mythology as the god who transported the dead to the afterlife [20]. In addition the Aztec also used the Axolotl as a source of food [20].

Apart from the amphibians, a small fish called the Sailfin Goodeid (Girardinichthys viviparus) from lake Xochimilco and surrounding areas, which has recently been bred for the first time in captivity [21], is part of the group of fishes known as a live-bearers, and give birth to live young. Most live-bearers require floating structures and debris as protection for their fry, without which, their population could arguably fall prey to higher predation. With the addition of the Chinampas, and therefore additional structure to hide the fry, the fish population may well have become more successful, even if the Aztecs fished for them, though there is no direct evidence of this. Conversely, if the affects of the Chinampas on the ecology of the lake system increased the dissolved nitrogen such as the Ammonia levels and Nitrates from the addition of manure to the Chinampas, and the blocking out of available sunlight to aquatic plants to break down these Nitrogen levels, the substrate could well have become more anaerobic, and therefore reducing the available dissolved oxygen content within the lake, which would have had a completely negative impact o ALL aquatic life in the lake.

Mining, apart from agriculture and religion, also played an important role in the Aztec civilisation. The discovery of the Fire Opal by the Aztecs became significantly important to the Spanish, who took the gem back to Europe with them [24]. The fire opal was given the name “Quetzalitzlipyollitli” which means “The Stone of the Bird of Paradise.” Interestingly, the fire opal was nearly forgotten after the knowledge of it dwindled through the generations of native Mexicans until 1835, when it was again remembered, putting in motion an increase in mining. Today this opal is the National Stone of Mexico [24].

In conclusion, without continuing to far into the massive footprint which the Aztecs left, or the associated reciprocal problems associated with their civilisation, I believe that the Aztecs through their innovation and will to survive, were able to overcome most of the obstacles facing their growing population. This growing population led to the founding of today’s most heavily populated city in the world, Mexico City, which is responsible for some of the worst air pollution in Central America. Could it be that the legacy of the Aztec nation still survives today through the continuous growth of the Mexican people?

Undoubtedly, through all successful civilisations and the merging of technologies and ideas passed onto progressive generations which eventually became today’s global society, the human race has been catapulted into an era of successful growth and global expansion, though the lessons of responsibility and control through the dismissal of ignorance is possibly the most urgent lesson of future success that we could possibly hope to learn. How desperate will the global situation become before we realise that it is too late?

If “The Population Pressure Theory of Social Evolution” is correct, and politics as an evolutionary result of our overall success and growth into a global society is to be believed, is it then not up to the politicians to enforce the solutions to global problems which are being raised today?

The future will most certainly be interesting, though, we may well be faced with the collapse of the human race in the larger context, which is often echoed within the disappearance of ancient civilisations…a climax and then a collapse. When will we ever learn!

David Vaughan
Senior aquarist, Quarantine
Two Oceans Aquarium
Cape Town, South Africa
dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

Picture credits:

Axolotl: http://www.bogleech.com/pkmn-axolotl.jpg

Mexican Trogon: http://www.finerareprints.com/birds/gould/8297.jpg

Chiampas: http://library.thinkquest.org/C006206F/images/images/pint5.jpg

Sailfin Goodeid:
http://www.goodeiden.de/assets/images/autogen/a_Girardinichthys_viviparus_03.jpg

References:

[1] Indians.org [Internet] [cited 14 Aug 06] Available from:
http://www.indians.org/welker/aztec.htm

[2] Berdan F. 2004. Circulation of Feathers in Mesoamerica. Hispanic Society-Institute of Fine Arts (no page numbers given).

[3] University of Texas. Law in Mexico Before the Conquest [Internet] [cited 14 Aug 2006 21:13] Available from:

http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/rare/aztec/Tribure.htm

[4] Puebla-Olivares F., Rodriguez-Ayala E., Hernández-Baños B. E., Navarro S. A. G. 2002. Staus and Conservation of the Avifauna of the Yaxchilán Natural Monument, Chiapas, México. Ornithologia Neotropical 13: 381-396.

[5] Townsend-Peterson A., Navarro-Sigüenza A. G., Hernández- Baños B. E., Escalona-Segura G., Rébon-Gallardo F., Rodriguez-Ayala E., Figueroa-Esquivel E. M., Cabrera-Garcia L. 2003. The Chimalapas Region, Oaxaca, Mexico: a high-priority region for bird conservation in Mesoamerica. Bird Conservation International 13: 227-253.

[6] Harner M. 1977. The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice. American Ethnologist 4(1) Human Ecology: 117 – 135.

[7] Hicks F. 1797. “Flowery War” in Aztec History. American Ethnologist 6(1): 87 – 92.

[8] Winkelman M. 1998. Aztec Human Sacrifice: Cross-Cultural Assessments of the Ecological Hypothesis. Ethnologist 37: (No page numbers given).

[9] Elson M. C., Smith M. E. 2002. Archaeological Deposits from the Aztec New Fire Ceremony. Ancient Mesoamerica 12: 157 – 174.

[10] Kehoe A. B. 1979. The Sacred Heart: A Case For Stimulus Diffusion. American Ethnologist 6(4): 763 – 771.

[11] Shonle R. 1924. The Christianizing Process Among Preliterate Peoples. Journal of Religion 4(3): 261 – 280.

[12] Cooper C., Finzi J., Hasbrouck J., Todd V. 2004. A Case Study of Sustainability: Jalcumulco, Veracruz. USG Centre for Sustainable Cities.

[13] Wikipedia contributors. Black-throated Trogon [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jun 12, 08:59 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 15]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-throated_Trogon&oldid=58178630.

[14] ThinkQuest: Aztecs: Farming and Agriculture [Internet] [cited 15 Aug 2006 22:30] Available from: http://library.thinkquest.org/16325/y-farm.html

[15] Wikipedia contributors. Chinampa [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 14, 07:32 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 16]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinampa&oldid=69541039

[16] Wikipedia contributors. Mesoamerican chronology [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 11, 10:30 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 16]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_chronology&oldid=68995832

[17] Wikipedia contributors. Endorheic [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 16, 08:30 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 16]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endorheic&oldid=69976185

[18] Altieri M. A. Agroecology In Action. University of Berkley [Internet] [cited 16 Aug 2006 11:12] Available from:
http://nature.berkeley.edu/~agroeco3/multifunctional_dimensions.html

[19] Griffiths R. A., Bride I. G. 2005. Newsletter of the Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force. Froglog 67: 1 – 4.

[20] Wikipedia contributors. Xolotl [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 13, 23:41 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 16]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xolotl&oldid=69476693

[21] Serva R. Breeding the Sailfin Goodeid - Girardinichthis viviparous. 2001. [Internet] [cited 16 Aug 2006: 12:04] Available from:
http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/universal-viewid109.html

[22] Global Amphibian Assessment. [Internet] [cited 16 Aug 2006: 12:13] Available from: http://www.globalamphibians.org/servlet/GAA?searchName=Ambystoma+mexicanum

[23] Veggie Cage: Tomato history. [Internet] [cited 16 August 2006: 12:34] Available from: http://www.tomato-cages.com/tomato-history.html

[24] Los Cabos Guide: The Fire Opal [Internet] [cited 16 Aug 2006: 13:08] Available from: http://www.loscabosguide.com/mexicanfireopals/index.html

ANIMAL AND PLANT DOMESTICATION

2006-08-16T09:49:00.000+02:00

Since David has asked for more details on where the animals and plants came from that were domesticated, here is some info from the paper by Mannion (1999). (Due to lack of time, I have copied and pasted the info… hope this is not too illegal!!)

“The ancestors of the domesticated sheep, goat, cattle and pig are the mouflon, bezoar goat, auroch and wild pig respectively. In the case of domesticated cattle, there is biomolecular evidence based on the analysis of the mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (mDNA) sequences in the mitochondria of modern species in Africa, Europe and India to indicate that there were at least two centres of domestication (Bradley et al., 1996). One of these was probably southwest Asia whilst the other was in India.” (Mannion 1999, p47)

References:

Bradley DG, MacHugh, DE, Cunningham, P and Loftus RT. 1996: Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93: 5131–5135.

Evans LT. 1993. Crop evolution, adaptation and yield. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Mannion AM. 1995. Agriculture and environmental change. Temporal and spatial dimensions. Chichester: Wiley.

Mannion AM. 1999. Domestication and the origins of agriculture: an appraisal. Progress in Physical Geography 23(1):37–56

Normile D. 1997.Yangtze seen as earliest rice site. Science 275: 309 (this report concerns ecent research results presented to the nternational Symposium on Agriculture and ivilization, Nara, Japan, 13–14 December1996).

ALL ROADS LEAD TO ROME

2006-08-15T20:21:00.000+02:00

I will ‘cross the Rubicon’ and address this topic almost entirely from what I have learned from the documentary “What the Ancients did for us: The Romans” produced by the Open University and the BBC, without backing my views with scientific papers… since finding accessible articles one this topic has been extremely difficult!

I never liked history much at school and I must admit that my perception of who the Romans where has been greatly biased by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo. My minds picture of Julius Caesar has been formed and cemented by Uderzo and so too the legions of Roman soldiers…

So what did the Romans do for us and what impact did they have on the environment? They had the best organized armies the world has ever seen. These armies marched on well built, mostly perfectly straight roads that spread all over the empire and usually led back to Rome, hence the proverb ‘all roads lead to Rome’. These roads covered some 80,000 kilometres and many of these roads have survived until today.

They had to overcome the hurdle of feeding their huge armies of paid soldiers and so devised tools for mass production. They came up with donkey driven grinding stones and kneading machines to produce bread on a big scale. They must have cultivated huge stretches of land to produce enough wheat and other grains, grapes and other fruit and vegetables to feed the growing population. They must have kept a lot of domesticated animals too.

They also perfected the art of glass blowing (which probably dated back to Syria 100 BC) and turned it into a mass production tool, blowing glass into moulds. They thus transformed the use of glass from luxury to everyday items. They were also the first to produce colourless glass (Jackson 2005) and glass sheeting, which they used for windows. They even invented double glazing to prevent the heat from escaping in their bath houses.

They had brilliant architects and engineers that designed aqueducts that supplied Rome with water. They built sewers to carry away the used and dirty water (they are even said to have had flush toilets… albeit many of them in one public room, where people sat and are said to have had lengthy conversations??)

They used simple but very effective a-framed cranes to build their multi-storey magnificent buildings. They used ball bearings to reduce friction and even designed a water-powered multiple saw that could cut through stone, to produce for example sheets of marble used to decorate wall panels. They even came up with a “recipe” for concrete, for which the Pantheon in Rome serves as an example. The entire dome is made from concrete, the upper half mixed with pumice instead of heavier gravel to lighten the structure.

They entertained the masses in macabre ways in what they termed circuses. Gladiator fights, prisoners being torn apart by animals and soldiers killing animals as a form of entertainment (so much for canned lion hunting…) The Colosseum is probably the most famous structure that survived through the centuries, where the masses were entertained. Chariot races where held on race tracks that could seat thousands of people… They certainly took occupying and entertaining the citizens serious!

Rome started off as a town on the banks of the Tiber River around 753 BC. Since ‘Rome wasn’t built in one day’ it took some 800 years before it had become the centre of the largest empire the world had ever seen. The Roman Empire stretched all around the Mediterranean Sea up to the Atlantic coastline of Spain in the west, including Britain in the north, Egypt in the south and up to the shoreline of the Caspian Sea in the east.

What made them so mighty? Their discipline, determination and respect for the law (or was it fear or simply ‘do as the Romans do’) gave them the edge over the Greeks. They absorbed the best of Greek culture and passed it on to the Western World. Music, theatre, mathematics, philosophy, ethics, democracy are all seen to have come from the ancient Greeks. Plato, Pythagoras, Hypocrites, Archimedes and many others have shaped so many ideas and theories that have become an integral part of science and the modern world.

How did they impact the environment? They must have used huge amounts of natural resources… just think of all those legions that had to be equipped with metal helmets, upper body armour, weapons, sandals. Metal had to be mined, leather tanned, wood cut (Williams 2002), fabric woven. For the mechanised weapons of warfare more wood, metal and leather was needed. They quarried stone for their buildings and roads, ploughed more fields to feed the growing populations. They built ships (more wood) to conquer and trade. They even built the first pleasure boats, complete with onboard bathing houses and reception rooms!

Their bath houses must have used huge amounts of water. Wood and possibly coal was used to heat the water and also to produce the hot air that circulated beneath the floors in their under floor heating systems. They used gold, silver, bronze, tin, lead for decorative articles in their buildings and many everyday articles were made of metal too. As their glass industry grew bigger, they needed more sand… They must have polluted the air with their many fires and the water with their ritual baths that included lavish use of oils.

The rich lived in luxury and opulence… and as we all know by now, the higher your standard of living, the bigger is your ecological footprint! So although I do not have the papers to prove this, the Romans must have had a huge impact on their environment. Williams (2002) has devoted almost an entire chapter to the land degradation the Romans had caused in the Mediterranean through deforestation and urbanization. (I read that in a book review, but haven’t been able to get hold of the book itself… YET!) That might just explain why their empire became so big, because they had to go further and further to get to the resources they needed to sustain their way of life…

References:

Jackson CM. 2005. Making colourless glass in the Roman period. Archaeometry 47(4):763–780.

Williams M. 2002. Deforesting the earth: from prehistory to global crisis. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. (Part one; Chapter 5)

Image credit in order of appearance:

http://www.asterix-obelix.nl/images/history/c-caesar.jpg

http://www.dolceroma.it/images/common/dove/pantheon.jpg

http://traumwerk.stanford.edu/philolog/map9rom2.jpg

Did you know there is a Blog devoted to Asterix and Obelix?? Check it out at: http://www.doubleclix-blog.com/

Karen Marais
BCB Hons NISL student
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville

E-mail 2657211@uwc.ac.za

Web http://brit-journal.com/karen2006bcbnisl/

THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION – DID NEED GROW INTO GREED?

2006-08-13T21:27:00.000+02:00

“What the Ancients did for us” is a documentary series by the Open University and the BBC in Great Britain. This episode focused on the Mesopotamians, the first civilizations that settled in the Fertile Crescent. What did these first civilizations bring us? According to the documentary they brought us agriculture, permanent settlements, the wheel (first used for chariots), warfare, irrigation systems, dams, the first written language, baked clay bricks… the list seems endless. But what impact did these inventions have on the human race and on the environment? I would like to focus on one and that is agriculture, as I believe it is the single one thing that set a whole chain reaction in motion that changed the course of humanity.

What was the Neolithic Revolution? The term was first used by Vere Gordon Childe (1936) in his book “Man makes himself”. According to Mannion (1999) Childe used the term to highlight the importance of the origin of agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution is also referred to as the birth of civilization, where civilization is said to be “an organized society”. Who were these people and what made them civilized? The Sumerian or Mesopotamian civilization was born from the first people that abandoned their hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settle down in one place and take up farming (Holmes, Maxwell and Scoones 2004). Mesopotamia lay in the “Fertile Crescent” with the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers supplying water and the fertile banks between the two rivers providing suitable soil for domesticating crops. The Fertile Crescent ran from the Persian Gulf through what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Israel to the Mediterranean Sea, also encompassing parts of Iran and Turkey. There has been much speculation as to where agriculture originated, but according to a recent study by Pinhasi et al. (2005) this can now be firmly placed in the Fertile Crescent. (Normile (1997) questioned if they were indeed the first to cultivate crops as evidence in China suggests that rice might have been cultivated there some 11 000 years ago.)

What exactly drove people to this new lifestyle some 10 000 years ago? Was it the environmental instability that followed after the end of the last ice age that necessitated people to become more innovative (Mannion 1999) or maybe a realization by some people that farming could produce an assured food supply in a much smaller area than what was needed to support a family with a nomadic lifestyle (Holmes, Maxwell and Scoones 2004)? Was it the milder climate that eventually followed after the last ice age came to an end that made that area particularly suitable for rearing crops? What could have triggered the change from an egalitarian hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one with distinct social classes, where the elite ruled? Was it population growth that came first or did agricultural practices lead to an explosion in the human population? Or could the dump-heap hypothesis of Anderson (1956) (mutual benefit of plants and humans that developed passively) still hold some merit? Since the early 20th century, two hypotheses have dominated the theories behind the advent of agriculture. They were termed the “need or greed” theories by Mannion (1999), where the “need” refers to Childe and others’ belief that environmental factors led to agricultural practices and the “greed” to Nikolai Vavilov’s work in the 1940’s that implies that cultural or materialistic factors played a leading role (Vavilov 1992).

Nobody seems to be able to come up with a definite answer (Mannion 1999) and it was probably a combination of factors that lead to the rise of agricultural practices. What is important though, is that the idea seemed to have cottoned on rather quickly and within a period of no more than a thousand years some small permanent settlements had grown to large ones (Holmes, Maxwell and Scoones 2004). It was within these communities that new skills and ideas were developed that would have a profound and irrevocable impact on human society and the environment as a whole.

Why focus on agriculture? From what I have read, it just stands out again and again as the one factor that just snowballed and within a little over 1000 years had spread to almost all corners of the earth. How it spread is still debated. Some say through the movement of populations (demic dispersal/diffusion) (Cavalli-Sforza 1996; Pinhasi et al. 2005) and others through imitation (cultural diffusion). Again, to me it is not as important as to how agricultural practices spread, but rather the fact that they did spread. According to Hannah et al. (1994) more than 75% of the earth’s habitable land surface has been disturbed to some extent by humans. It is now more than ten years later since that paper was written and this percentage will have certainly gone up even further. Especially if one takes into account that in 1996 the World Resource Institute’s estimate of annual deforestation in the tropics alone was around 8%. Agriculture is thus by far the biggest cause of land transformation and therefore the biggest cause of environmental decay (Mannion 1999; ) Agriculture gave rise to wealth and social classes (Gowdy 1995) and even today is still one of the main sources of wealth generation (Mannion 1999). I therefore cannot but agree with Mannion (1999) and Childe (1936) that the advent of agriculture was the turning point in environmental and cultural history. It was agriculture in the form of crop cultivation and later also domestication of animals that allowed people to settle more permanently. Permanent settlement and population growth however also brought about a change in human culture. People moved from an egalitarian, socially equal society to a socially divided community, where social classes where soon established and the elite ruled (Gowdy 1995). Surplus food production gave rise to trade in items being used to reinforce social standing, whereas trade between egalitarian communities were probably limited to utilitarian items (Gowdy 1995).

According to Gowdy (1995) trade and environmental sustainability just do not seem to go together very well. It is a pattern that has repeated itself in prehistory and history since the inception of agriculture; wealth generation through agriculture, a rapid growth in the population, the elite in the society taking control of the surplus, wide trade and overexploitation. Eventually environmental decay sets in that just does not allow societies to cope with natural phenomena such as droughts or floods and the outcome is inevitable, societal collapse (Ponting 1991; Weiss et al. 1993; Gowdy 1995). Mannion (1999) agrees that even in prehistoric times, agriculture has been associated with overexploitation where soil erosion, water pollution, desertification and soil degradation eventually led people to abandon their settlements and migrate to greener pastures. (All this does sound awfully familiar… Isn’t that exactly what the world is now experiencing at a global scale? Overexploitation can be seen everywhere, the only difference is we have nowhere to migrate to!)

Apart from wealth creation on the one hand and environmental decay on the other, agriculture has probably also played a major role in the spread of diseases. The fact that many people were living together in relatively small spaces, made them ideal hosts for many pathogens (Mira et al 2006). In this paper the authors postulate that selective pressure could have transformed general pathogens to host specific pathogens during the Neolithic revolution. The regular transfer of pathogens from animals to humans and visa versa probably also occurred for the first time around this period.

So what did agriculture bring us? It paved the way for many new technologies that included pottery and metal technology that improved man’s ability to manipulate the environment according to his needs (Mannion 1999). Are we any better off though? Are we happier people than the hunter-gatherers that lived in prehistoric times? Did greed indeed follow need? Some of us (the developed world) might face less hardship now, but our greed has transformed the world and is continuing to transform the world where the rich are getting richer and the poor poorer…

References:

Anderson E. 1956. Man as a maker of new plants and plant communities. In Thomas, WA Jr (editor). Man’s role in changing the face of the earth. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. p363–77.

Cavalli-Sforza LL. 1996. The spread of agriculture and nomadic pastoralism: insights
from genetics, linguistics and archaeology. In Harris DR (editor). The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia. London: UCL Press. p51–69.

Childe VG. 1936. Man makes himself. London: Watts.

Gowdy JM. 1995. Trade and Environmental Sustainability: An Evolutionary Perspective. Review of Social Economy Vol LIII (4):493-510.

Holmes M , Maxwell G and Scoones T. 2004. The birth of civilization. In: Nile. London: BBC Books. p31-34.

Mannion AM. 1999. Domestication and the origins of agriculture: an appraisal. Progress in Physical Geography 23(1):37–56

Mira A, Pushker R and Rodriguez-Valera F. 2006. The Neolithic revolution of bacterial genomes. Trends in Microbiology 14(5):200-206.

Normile D. 1997. Yangtze seen as earliest rice site. Science 275:309.

Pinhasi R, Fort J and Ammerman AJ. 2005. Tracing the origin and spread of agriculture in Europe. PLoS Biology 3(12): 2220-2228.

Ponting C. 1991. A Green History of the World. New York: Penguin Books.

Vavilov NI. 1992. Origin and geography of cultivated plants. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Weiss H, Courty M-A, Wetterstrom W, Guichard F, Senior L, Meadow
R, and Currow A. 1993 The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium
North Mesopotamian Civilization. Science 261: 995-1004.

Image credit: http://www.hawaii.edu/ahead/Iraq%20General/mesopotamia.jpg

Karen Marais
BCB Hons NISL student
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville

E-mail 2657211@uwc.ac.za

Web http://brit-journal.com/karen2006bcbnisl/

NEW ZEALAND- WHERE BIRDS ONCE RULED

2006-08-06T23:38:00.000+02:00

Monsters We Met #3, deals mostly with New Zealand and how the Maoris impacted the New Zealand archipelago some 700-1000 years ago. It is implied that these Polynesians brought dogs, Polynesian rats (kiore) as well as several tropical plants with them. I had a look at what I could find in the line of peer reviewed articles that would support these claims.

But firstly, how did New Zealand look like 1000 years ago and what animals inhabited these islands? The islands were mostly covered by forests up to the tree-line and tussock in the sub-alpine areas (Holdaway 1989; Wikipedia contributors. Biodiversity of New Zealand). There were no mammals apart from two species of bats, one endemic, that exploited a large variety of food, from foraging on the ground for insects to eating fruit and nectar (Holdaway 1989). The bulk of New Zealand vertebrates were however birds with a few reptiles (only skinks, geckos and tuataras) and frogs making up the rest (Holdaway 1989; Wikipedia contributors. Biodiversity of New Zealand). There were over a 1000 species of snails and a rich variety of insects, some large and flightless as the weta (Holdaway 1989). The birds ruled though, and unlike popular belief there were predators; not mammalian but avian (Holdaway 1989). The Haast’s eagle was one of the largest raptors ever and had a wingspan of up to three meters and capable of taking down even the largest of the moas (Wikipedia contributors. Haast's Eagle). Holdaway (1989) suggests that the presence of predators such as the Haast’s eagle was enough selective pressure to give rise to some birds becoming nocturnal (e.g. kiwi).

New Zealand was one of the last landmasses to have been populated by man, but as with every other landmass a wave of extinctions followed. Several articles support the idea that prehistoric Polynesians introduced not only dogs but also the kiore to New Zealand by about 1300 AD (Holdaway 1989; Holdaway 1999; Duncan and Blackburn 2004). The debate here (yes, there is an academic debate here too!) seems to be what had the biggest impact on New Zealand’s avian diversity; mammalian introductions (Blackburn et al. 2004) or a combination of factors (Didham et al. 2005).

Holdaway (1989) describes the demise to have possibly happened in three pulses. The first pulse coincided with the arrival of man that brought with him two further predators, namely dogs and the Polynesian rat. The birds most susceptible to the kiore were ground or burrow nesting birds, with eggs ≥ 60mm, regardless if these birds were flightless or not (Holdaway 1989; Holdaway 1999; Duncan and Blackburn 2004). These birds simply had no defence against this nocturnal predator that would eat their eggs and had the advantage of rearing several litters per season (Holdaway 1989). During the second pulse many larger-bodied birds were probably driven into extinction through the combination of hunting and habitat loss (Holdaway 1989). This not only included all 11 species of moas, but also the Haast’s eagle, whose prey had been depleted. The third pulse coincided with the arrival of European settlers that introduced more predators, namely two further rat species, cats, possums and mustelids, as well as herbivores that soon altered the habitat (Holdaway 1989).

Duncan and Blackburn (2004) have narrowed it down to two pulses. The prehistoric extinctions, where they found that large-bodied birds and ground or burrow nesting birds were most vulnerable to extinction due to hunting by humans and predation by the kiore respectively and the historic extinction, where endemic birds with an intermediate body mass (32-320g) as well as being flightless made them particularly vulnerable to the newly introduced predators. The level of endemism seemed to have played a significant role in the proneness to extinction at all times (Duncan and Blackburn 2004).

Duncan et al. (2002) evaluated fossil avifauna data from Marsfells Beach, South Island and found that the Maoris there specifically favoured large-bodied birds because of their size and not because they were flightless. They also found that different birds “were differentially susceptible to extinction” (p.517). Those birds with a slow growth and reproductive rate were more susceptible to extinction, as they could not reproduce fast enough to keep up with the rate that they were being hunted (Holdaway 1989; Duncan et al. 2002) But hunting was clearly not the only reason birds became extinct, as birds that were clearly not favoured by Maori hunters at Marsfell Beach, also became extinct according to Duncan et al. (2002). This was probably due to habitat destruction as large parts of lowland forests were cleared for agriculture (McGlone and Basher 1995).

There seems to be little debate about the impact humans have had in New Zealand since their arrival between 700-1000 years ago. A recent debate seems rather petty as it is about the positive correlation of the number of introduced predatory mammal species since European settlement and bird extinctions (Blackburn et al. 2004) and a multi-factoral cause for bird extinctions since European settlement ( Didham et al. 2005; Wikipedia contributors. List of extinct New Zealand animals). The most birds however (at least 34) became extinct before European settlement in New Zealand (Duncan et al. 2002) and a further 19 became extinct after European settlement (Wikipedia contributors. List of extinct New Zealand animals). Towns and Daugherty (1994) also concluded that the major cause of herpetofauna extinctions since the arrival of humans certainly is the introduction of predatory mammals. Although they do not disregard hunting and habitat loss as secondary causes, they came to the above conclusion because species diversities and densities are much higher on rat-free islands, more nocturnal species of herpetofauna have become extinct (nocturnal species are more vulnerable to nocturnal predators) and on islands where rats have been eradicated, the lizard populations have made a remarkable recovery. Blackburn et al. (2004) came to the same conclusion that extant native birds have managed to survive on islands that have stayed rat free, yet intact natural forest vegetation that harbours introduced mammals is almost devoid of native birds. All factors have certainly played their role. Both New Zealand’s main islands have been greatly transformed and hardly harbour any native fauna. Only the most resilient have survived… and in New Zealand’s case the climate does not seem to have played a great role (Holdaway 1989).

Yet again I am dumbstruck by the utter destruction our human race has brought upon a land. Clearly this was not intentional, but the results are the never the less the same. 40% of New Zealand’s fauna has been eradicated within 1000 years of human occupation and more worrying even is that 41% of the extant fauna only barely survives on some rat-free offshore islands (Towns and Daugherty 1994). Have we indeed become the monsters, as "Monsters we met #3" suggested?

References:

Blackburn TM, Cassey P, Duncan RP, Evans KL and Gaston KJ. 2004. Avian Extinction and Mammalian Introductions on Oceanic Islands. Science 305:1955

Blackburn TM, Cassey P, Duncan RP, Evans KL and Gaston KJ. 2005. Technical Comment: Response to Comment on “Avian Extinction and Mammalian Introduction on Oceanic Islands”. Science 307:1412b.

Didham RK, Ewers RM and Gemmell NJ. 2005. Technical Comment: Comment on “Avian Extinction and Mammalian Introductions on Oceanic Islands”. Science 307:1412a.

Duncan RP, Blackburn TM and Worthy TH. 2002. Prehistoric bird extinctions and human hunting. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 269:517-521.

Duncan RP and Blackburn TM. 2004. Extinction and endemism in the New Zealand avifauna. Global Ecology and Biogeography 13:509-517.

Holdaway RN. 1989. New Zealand’s pre-human avifauna and its vulnerability. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 12(supplement): 11-25.

Holdaway RN. 1999. Introduced predators and avifaunal extinction in New Zealand. In: McPhee RD, editor. Extinctions in Near Time. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. p 189-238.

McGlone MS and Basher LR. 1995. The deforestation of the upper Awatere catchment, Inland Kaikoura Range, Marlborough, South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 19;53-66.

Towns DR and Daugherty CH. 1994. Patterns of range contractions and extinctions in the New Zealand herpetofauna following human colonization. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 21:325-339.

Wikipedia contributors. Biodiversity of New Zealand [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 27, 21:05 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 6]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biodiversity_of_New_Zealand&oldid=66231303.

Wikipedia contributors. Haast's Eagle [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 1, 11:39 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 6]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haast%27s_Eagle&oldid=67023162.

Wikipedia contributors. List of extinct New Zealand animals [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 31, 05:42 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 6]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_extinct_New_Zealand_animals&oldid=66808010.

Image credit: http://www.nzbirds.com/birds/haasteagle.html

Karen Marais
BCB Hons NISL student
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville

E-mail 2657211@uwc.ac.za

Web http://brit-journal.com/karen2006bcbnisl/

ABORIGINAL ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT: BOTH PHYSICAL AND PLACENTAL?

2006-08-03T22:35:00.000+02:00

The out of Africa Hypothesis suggests that ancient people could not have inhabited the Australian continent before 50 000 years ago [1], but in 1974, Mungo man was discovered by James Bowler of the University of Melbourne at Lake Mungo at the far Western region of New South Wales [1]. Initially scientists indicated that the remains of Mungo Man could be as old as 60 000 years old, but new evidence indicates that the skeleton is only about 40 000 years old, and that the historical people of the time could have been living there for 10 000 years [1]. Although there is a lot of variation and opinion regarding the time-line of Australian pre-history, the suggested minimum time-frame for the original arrival of people to the Australian continent is between 40 000 to 45 000 years ago [3]. There are still those who consider this date to be as much as 70 000 years ago [3].

Who are the Aborigines and what has been their impact and contribution to Australia?

The word “Aboriginal” means “earliest known,” or “native,” and was originally used in Greek and Italy to describe the original people of those areas [2]. The world’s human population was generally small 30 000 years ago, and as far as we know, there were no cultivated crops or farmed animals, nor had working with metal been discovered yet [2]. During the last great ice-age in the Pleistocene epoch [4], the continent of Australia was connected to New Guinea. The islands of Borneo and Java were a lot bigger than they are today as a result of the vast amounts of water being locked away in the polar ice sheets [2]. The distances between islands was closer and the sea-level was probably about 100 to 150 meters [3] shallower than it is today, making migration from nearby land masses easier, facilitated by some type of water craft such as a raft [2]. The migration of the Aborigines to Australia is thought to be the earliest by prehistoric humans [2]. The word Pleistocene is derived from the Greek, which means “most recent,” and lasted from 1.8 million to 12 000 years ago [4]. The Pleistocene epoch is part of what is known as the geological timescale, and is the third epoch of the Neogene period and the sixth epoch of the Cenozoic era [4]. (The word “Epoch” is a sequence in time where the oldest period of time is an Eon, which is divided into Eras, which are divided into Epochs, Periods and Stages) [5].

It is suggested that the Aborigines share a common ancestor with the people of India, and that their ancestors passed through India and East Asia through the chain of islands to Australia [7]. Interestingly the tribe that took up residence at lake Mungo more closely resembled early Africans, and, the now extinct native Tasmanians were also more “African” in physical appearance [7]. The Aborigines adapted well to various and changing climates that were associated with Australia at that time in pre-history, developing a fishing culture in the area now known as Queensland, and took advantage of the woodlands areas around Victoria and New South Wales. Tasmania would have been connected to Australia during this time, and although it had a colder climate, the Aborigines succeeded in survival here too [7].

Scientists have also indicated that stone tools used in various forms by the first Aborigines were made as an adaptation to survival to facilitate the successful invasion of the Australian continent [8, 9]. Stone tools however remained relatively unchanged for several thousand years and are thought to have been used to make other tools out of wood. One of these wooden tools includes the famous boomerang, an amusing instrument of sport and leisure for today’s modern society, but its original purpose was for hunting prey. Although two varieties are known, including the hunting boomerang and the returning boomerang, it is thought that boomerangs were created as adaptations to throwing sticks, similar to those used in Egypt for example [10]. Boomerangs are not unique to Australia. Various forms have been developed by tribes in South America as well as the ancient Egyptians [10]. The Aborigines used the hunting boomerang, a carefully balanced tool, carved by stone tools to perfection, to bring down upright-standing game like Kangaroos and large ground birds [10]. The oldest boomerang found in Australia dated back 10 000 years, though it is also possible that they were used prior to this period, since wood tools do not last as long as stone tools [10].

Aboriginal culture has not changed much through the generations and there is an almost child-like innocence about the way they still apologise to the animals [7], which they kill for food. Their culture is one of unity and respect for nature. From a cultural perspective, these people probably had a very minor, yet mutualistic relationship with their environment, although the use of fire is blindly indicated as the root-cause for the possible extinction of the ancient megafauna…

Weird animals…

Large prehistoric animals roamed much of the Australian continent during the Pleistocene epoch. Fossils have been found of what are accumulatively termed “megafauna,” the large animals including marsupials and birds and lizards [6]. Fossils were discovered in the Wellington caves, which is West of Sydney, by Major Thomas Mitchell in 1831 [6]. Many of the megafauna became extinct in the late Pleistocene epoch, and it is suggested that since the Aborigines discovered Australia during this period, they may have been responsible for their extinction [6]. Evidence suggests that the Aborigines made use of fire to flush out predators and for general protection and cooking, which includes the use of fire to roast the seeds of the various Acacia trees in the Australian bush, however, the last ice-age also brought about a period of increasing drought, which reduced vast lush plains of the Australian interior [6] to desert, and although it was drawing to a close, it could have driven the herbivorous fauna into isolated areas where they could still find enough food and water [6]. As these areas became smaller, so did their population size. It could well be argued that the use of fire was harmonious and within the respectful ideals of the Aboriginal culture, while the continent of Australia was still relatively lush and green. With the drying process associated with the last ice-age, drought and therefore a higher percentage of potential fuel for runaway fires could have lead to climactic unintentional and associated demise of habitat. Could it be possible then that the Aboriginal people were only a coincidental addition to an already ecological “recession,” where the megafauna were dying out as a result of the last ice-age? With the added pressure on dwindling numbers of large animals by the world’s most successful hunter, I believe that Man’s presence was enough to seal the fate of not only the small populations of herbivores, but also the larger carnivores, which were faced with a collapse in their food-prey resource as a result, however, he was not the base-cause of it.

Some of the megafauna that is described from fossil evidence includes the following:

1) Diprotodon, which literally means “two prominent teeth.”[6]. There were various varieties of Diprotodon, varying from the small sheep-sized species to the large Diprotodon optatum, which was the size of a rhino and weighed in at about 2000kg! This was the world’s larges marsupial [6].

2) Zygomaturus tasmanicus was similar to Diprotodon, but preferred the forest areas to the open grasslands. This beast weighed in at a healthy 300 to 500kg [6].

3) Procoptodon goliah was the largest kangaroo ever to walk or hop on the face of the Earth [6]. Procoptodon goliah belonged to the Sthenurines family, the family containing 14 now extinct forms of ancient Kangaroo [6]. Procoptodon goliah weighed up to 200kg and stood almost 2.5m tall [6]. It is thought that a broadened skull and nasal passages might have facilitated the amplification of sound in this species [6].

4) Dromornis stirtoni, of the Mihirung birds, the name given by the Aboriginal people for the giant birds which they encountered, were herbivorous and weighed in at around 500kg [6]. These giants were most likely related to the common ducks or turkeys and not necessarily related to the Emus of today [6].

5) Megalania prisca, “The Ancient Giant Butcher,” the largest lizard-predator that roamed Australia measuring up to 5.5m long and weighing up to 600kg. It is clear that Megalania prisca was a carnivore [6], but it is not known if this animal could have actually tackled and killed the large marsupials like Diprotodon [6], however, there were smaller prey items around, including man!

So why did Australia have all these weirdly unique animals in the first place?

Millions of years ago, Australia was still connected to South America and Antarctica. At this time the entire area shared the same general biodiversity of prehistoric and evolving animals. When Australia split up from South America and Antarctica, it effectively isolated the rich fauna from the other two continents, and over time and differences in adaptations to different environmental conditions, different forms of animal evolved [7]. This was the time of the development of mammals (about 120 million years ago) around the world, which included a group known as the Marsupials [7]. The Marsupials give birth prematurely, unlike other mammals, which is due to the poor development of the placenta [7]. In all other regions of the world, the evolution of the placenta in placental mammals caused the out-competition of the Marsupials, however this did not occur in Australia [7]. Without the competition of placental mammal development, Australia’s mammals continued to evolve along marsupial lines [7], ultimately ending with the giants described above. A strange group of the Marsupials, the Monotremes was a further development, which incorporated egg-laying instead of giving birth to premature young. Today there are only two species in this group known to science, the Platypus and the Echidna [7].

The invasion of the Placenta!

The long-evolved placenta-less world of the Marsupials came to an abrupt end with the arrival of humans, the most highly evolved placental mammals on Earth. The Australian world where competition of evolution within the mammal types was non-existent, now took on a drastic evolutionary face-off, and unknowingly, the first human footprint not only began with the first physical impression on the virgin beach sand, but would remain as an irreversible scar like a white-wash of common world-wide domination, slowly monopolising natures hidden experimental laboratory over time. The evolutionary clock was now running out of steam for the Marsupial kingdom. With the humans came the second most successful predator, another placental mammal, the dog, or Dingo, which is the name of the now “native” Australian wild dog.

Ironically the ecological footprint deepened with the colonisation of Australia by Europeans from 1788, when waves of colonial settlements encroached ever deeper into the interior of the continent [11]. Aborigines were treated as slaves and savages, and their way of life was not only ridiculed but also persecuted.

Ending with man…this should have a new meaning.

Conclusion:

Aborigines obliviously impacted a world devoid of advanced “alien” mammals and set in motion a discovery, but also an inevitable change in the balance of nature, not by their actions alone, rather the coincidental impact in association with the last ice-age climate change. Could burning over time just innocently have gone too far as a result? I do not believe that the Aboriginal people can be labelled as responsible for the demise of Australia’s megafauna. I do however believe that they are rather victims of their own adaptation to survive.

References

[1] BBC News [Internet] 19 February 2003: 03:46GMT [cited 2 August 18:30] Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2776697.stm

[2] Aboriginals [Internet] [cited 2 August 18:49] Available from: http://www.apex.net.au/~mhumphry/aborigin.html

[3] Wikipedia contributors. Prehistory of Australia [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 2, 04:26 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 2]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prehistory_of_Australia&oldid=67180006.

[4] Wikipedia contributors. Pleistocene [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 30, 05:12 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 2]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pleistocene&oldid=66639213

[5] Wikipedia contributors. Geologic time scale [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 31, 20:47 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 2]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geologic_time_scale&oldid=66919324

[6] Museum Victoria, Prehistoric life [Internet]. [cited 2006 Aug 3: 19:27] Available from: http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/prehistoric/mammals/australia.html

[7] Ancient Land of Oz, Marsupials and the drying of Australia [Internet]. [cited 2006 Aug 3: 20:28] Available from: http://ozzyfrank.150m.com/pages/Early_Oz.htm

[8] Hiscock P. 1994. Technological Responses to Risk in Holocene Australia. Journal of World Prehistory 8(3): 267 – 292.

[9] Moore M. W. 2003. Flexibility of Stone Tool Manufacturing Methods on the Georgina River, Camooweal Queensland. Archaeology in Oceania 38(1) 23.

[10] Boomerang history [Internet]. [cited 2006 Aug 3: 22:14] Available from: http://www.rangs.co.uk/boomhistory.htm

[11] Wikipedia contributors. History of Australia (1788-1850) [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Aug 2, 03:57 UTC [cited 2006 Aug 3]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Australia_%281788-1850%29&oldid=67176009.

Picture credit: http://www.rangs.uk/boomhistory.htm

David Vaughan

Senior aquarist, Quarantine

Two Oceans Aquarium

Cape Town, South Africa

dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

davidvaughan.b-logging.com

Biodiversity and Conservation Biology

2006-08-03T11:02:00.000+02:00

What, exactly, is biodiversity, and what is its relationship with conservation biology? Is there a useful distinction between conventional ("natural") and designed biodiversity? And how can we meaningfully speak of a biodiversity crisis without first defining our terms.

These are some of the points discussed in a rather thought-provoking column by Brad Allenby, over at Greenbiz.com.

Some choice excerpts:

To begin with, it is apparent that "biodiversity" is not a factual observation, but a cultural construction. One way to construct it is by considering only biodiversity that arises from evolutionary processes, in which case loss of "traditional" species equates to loss of biodiversity. Alternatively, one can consider only designed biodiversity, in which case gains in constructed forms of life, such as GMOs or engineered bacteria constitute gains in biodiversity. Or one could consider overall information content of biological systems of all sorts as biodiversity, in which case no one knows whether it's increasing or decreasing.

More?

What community gets rights to define the cultural construct of biodiversity matters because the definition of the term in large part bounds public perceptions, and thus potential policy responses. Biodiversity traditionally has been defined by the conservation biology community, which by self-selection, focus and training has a strong incentive to perceive losses in evolutionary biodiversity, and little experience or interest in understanding designed biodiversity at all, except perhaps as it overlaps "natural" systems (a major reason for this is that designed biodiversity tends to be found in industrial and agricultural systems, as opposed to "natural" environments). This definition accordingly is based on the construct of “species” generated by evolved biology, and - given the continued development of the anthropogenic Earth - necessarily implies a “crisis” in biodiversity, requiring in turn strong policy measures to “preserve biodiversity”.

It's a really good read, so feel free to check it out. Just some food for thought...

Cheers
Nicklaus

HOW GREEN IS MY ROOF (AND MY PRINCIPLES)

2006-08-01T00:36:00.000+02:00

A few weeks ago, in discussion with our Dean of Science, it was reported that the planning for the new Science Building (which is to house the Environmental Science and BCB) was well on its way and it would be a “model” building including the proposal for a green roof. I had sort of heard of green roofs, its sort of roofs with a living thatch, well what I mean is real living vegetation not dead and fire risk restio thatch. Sounds cool? So what are the advantages of going green on top? Well I had not really thought about it – I had seen pictures in Europe with buildings with what looked like turf on top and wondered how they cut it? I also wonder about what sort of plants you would put on your roof to survive the hot summer and drying Southeasterly winds? I then thought that most Cape Town Roofs seem to leak, was putting a garden up there going to increase the chances of leaks at any time of year? I know I am skeptic but our BCB building has, since I joined the department, always leaked some where and mostly in different places with each new storm. Was it not last year that a roof leak flooded the server room –with a cascade of water that drenched and ended the life of one of our BCB server? Well a quick search on the Internet revealed my country bumpkin mindset – its all the rage everywhere else in the world, but try as I may with the search words no evidence of an example in Cape Town, so does this mean that UWC will build the first Green Roof construction in the city? I even went to a Global Green Roof Database, with still no results, even for South Africa http://www.greenroofs.com/projects/plist.php - try this database and see which countries are the leaders in this new “green” technology [1].

What is a Green Roof?

This is a building roof that is completely or partly covered with a growing medium (vegetation and soil) and uses a waterproofing membrane to isolate this garden from the rooms below. A roof with container plants is not usually considered to be a “green roof”. Sounds great except that plants used on a roof garden are not usually the type you can walk, but somehow the idea of lounging on the roof top soaking up a summer tan is unlikely to be financed by the perpetually cash-strapped university – but it can provide habitat for birds, insects etc.

So what are the advantages?

We know its going to cost more, so how do you justify, well here goes with the advertising…

Reduces storm water run off , this might not sound much, but with climate change and more extreme events that storm water discharge can be too much and get into the sewage and you are living in the proverbial cesspool [2]. I still cannot help thinking to collect the water in a conservancy tanks is cheaper and possibly more useful, f a drought were to come around. The vegetation filters pollutants, especially heavy metals and they get contained and not spread into the water system.
Reduce CO2 emissions, and there is more vegetation to take up the carbon.
Increase habitat for wildlife – possible this roof could be cat-proofed so the local birds can breed unmolested.
Increase roof life span (got this from Wikipedia) but it does not explain how.
Reduce heating cost during winter months (provides natural insulation so you do not lose so much heat) and promotes cooler interiors during the hot moths (evaporative losses and again the insulating factor). This has been demonstrated to be considerable in high northern latitudes [3], especially when situated far from the cooling effects of the sea and large water bodies (continental areas). Studies in Canada have suggested a 25 percent reduction cooling needs during summer and a 26 percent reduction in heating costs during winter
Creates open (amenity) space, this is probably not an issue on UWC campus.
If more buildings had Green Roofs in high density cities you would reduce the so called “Heat Island” effect [2]. One estimate put this at reduction in 16%.
And finally to grow useful plants– well the Egyptians use this to grow strawberries and other edibles – but then the roof has to be sort of flat or your abseiling skills need to be pretty good [4].

Who’s clever at building Green Roofs

Well a reconstruction of a Viking house along the Labrador coast of Canada has included a green roof – looks quite groovy too, but apparently the Native North Americans may have a clam to the first Green Roofs with their sod house [5] well European colonization put pay to that idea for a few centuries, with few eccentric Scandinavians maintaining the tradition in a low key way. Well the clever Swiss can claim one of the first big Green Roof developments back in 1914

Switzerland has one of Europe's oldest green roofs, created in 1914 at the Moos lake water-treatment plant, Wallishofen, Zurich. Its filter-tanks have 30,000 square metres (320,000 ft²) of flat concrete roofs [3]. To keep the interior cool and prevent bacterial growth in the filtration beds, a drainage layer of gravel and a 15 cm (6 in) layer of soil was spread over the roofs, which had been waterproofed with asphalt. A meadow developed from seeds already present in the soil; it is now a haven for many plant species, some of which are now otherwise extinct in the district, most notably 6,000 Orchis morio (green-winged orchid).

In Germany it is estimated that 10 to 12 percent of roofs are already green and they are certainly the leaders in implementing the technology, whereas other than in a few cities (especially Chicago and Portland) the USA have a little way to go before fully accepting the idea. Nevertheless the Ford HQ has one of the largest, if not the largest greenroof area at a single installation. In the UK the University of Nottingham has a library with a Green Roof – so internationally we would be a bit Johnny come lately.

HERE COMES THE RUB…

This all sounds politically correct but they are going to site this new high-tech in the dog-leg section of the Cape Flats Nature Reserve. The where-abouts of the new building has not actually been known to us in the BCB or EERU until quite recently (this June), and even now I am not sure exactly "where" in the dog leg it is to be sited, what I can say is that particular habitat is extremely rare (Sandplain Fynbos), as opposed to what the Cape Flat Reserve mostly represents which is Coastal Thicket which is fairly well represented by the existing Cape Town City reserve network and in any case Dune Thicket is both "less" sensitive and "less" unique. This situation is made more sensitive still, since the substrate of this site is acid and any building will introduce concrete and change the pH of the soil which has been shown to have impacts on acid-adapted plants. A alternative site (West of the dog leg) has already been wasted, it has easy vehicle access (East side of the Senate Building) making for easier construction and very likely easier connection to other services like sewerage etc. Since this site fronts onto the natural area along the North East boundary the "dog leg" part of the reserve would actually complement the building aesthetics, further if the long side of the building were parallel to natural vegetation you would maximize light, but minimize excess heat (North East is usually considered an optimal orientation for building in this part of the world, whereas a North West aspect long-side facing Modderdam Road is hotter in summer and colder in winter - making for more energy demands ). Further this site is closer to the Library and central University buildings than the dog-leg site- it is still next to the road so it can make a statement of sustainable design. Existing pedestrian access could be upgraded in front of the Gold Fields Centre) to connect to the rest of Campus. Search and Rescue has been suggested by the planners but is also not feasible, due to there being very little acid substrate areas to move the "rescued" plants into.

Possibly the most ironic aspect of this is we are one of the few Univeristy that has mission statement directly relating to the environment

"Help conserve and explore the environmental and cultural resources of the southern African region, and to encourage a wide awareness of them in the community"

The University is apparently not oblige to undertake an Environmental Impact Assessment and is not intending to do one either! This is not the first time that a University building has encroached on what is essentially the reserve area - the new School of Government was its first grab! I will keep you informed.

References

[1] The Greenroof Project Database [Internet]. Greenroofs.com, undated [cited 2006 Jul 28]. Available from
http://www.greenroofs.com/projects/plist.php

[2]Wikipedia contributors. Green roof [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2006 Jul 8, 21:10 UTC [cited 2006 Jul 28]. Available from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Green_roof&oldid=62776046

[3] Anon. Green Roof Project [Internet] Waterloo…Life at its best; 2006 Jun 23, [cited 2006 Jul 28]. Available from: http://www.city.waterloo.on.ca/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabid=1177

[4]The green roof research program at Michigan State University. [Internet]. Michigan State University, Department of Horticulture; 2005 Aug 22, [cited 2006 Jul 28]. Available from: http://www.hrt.msu.edu/greenroof/#Benefits%20of%20green%20roofs

[5] May your Roof be green. [Internet]. Al-Ahram Weekly On-Line: Environment; 2005 Jun 28, [cited 2006 Jul 28]. Available from:
http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/745/en2.htm

Cheers

Rich